Although the foundation of fundamentalism is deeply rooted in scriptures of Islam, the religion did pass through various enlightened phases during its global expansion and synthesis with other cultures. However, religious fundamentalism has repeatedly returned to uproot these progressive chapters of civilization. The repeated emergence of fundamentalist movements in the history of Islam out of its enlightened phases is one of its distinctive characteristics. It shows its resilience and deep influence among the Muslims in various parts of this world.
The Islamic Golden Age (8th–13th Century)
The medieval era of Islamic enlightenment was marked by extraordinary intellectual, scientific, and cultural achievements. Following the era[1] of the companions (Sahabi) of Prophet Muhammad, new Islamic empires were established—first by the Umayyad dynasty (661-750) in Damascus, and later by the Abbasid dynasty (750-1258) in Baghdad in the mid-8th century. In southern Spain (Al-Andalus), the survivors of Umayyad dynasty after their fall in Damascus at the hand of Abbasids, established an Emirate and later a Caliphate in Cordoba.[2] Their combined rule, spanning nearly seven hundred years, triggered an explosion of human intellect that later played a vital role in the European Renaissance. Institutions like the House of Wisdom (Bayt al-Hikma)[3] in Baghdad became centers for translating and preserving ancient Greek, Roman, Persian, and Indian texts. Cities like Baghdad, Damascus, and Cordoba flourished as hubs of knowledge, art, and architecture.[4] Some of the key scholars and their contributions are mentioned below.
- Al-Khwarizmi (c. 780 – c. 850)[5] is known as the “Father of Algebra”.
- Ibn Sina (Avicenna) ( c. 980 – c. 1037)[6] is a pioneer of modern medicine and was a polymath who made remarkable contributions in different branches of science and humanities.
- Al-Haytham (c. 965 – c. 1040) [7] is considered as the “Founder of modern optics”.
- Al-Biruni (c. 973 – c. 1050)[8] and Al-Tusi (c. 1201 – c. 1274)[9] revolutionized astronomy and mathematics.
- Jabir ibn Hayyan (died c. 806 – 816)[10] is considered as the "Father of chemistry."
- Al-Razi (864/865 – 925/935)[11] advanced medical diagnosis and pharmacology.
- Philosophers such as, Al-Farabi (c. 870 – 915/916), Ibn Rushd (Averroes) (1126 – 1198) [12], and Al-Ghazali (c. 1058 – 1111) blended Greek logic with Islamic thoughts influencing the European Renaissance.
This era declined following the Mongol invasion led by Hulegu Khan in 1258.[13] The Mongols destroyed libraries, killed scholars, and ended the central authority of the Abbasids. This vacuum allowed for the rise of fundamentalist movements like the Hanbali school[14] and the conservative teachings of Ibn Taymiyya[15], who emphasized a literal return to the Quran and Hadith while rejecting the philosophical interpretations of the Golden Age.
After the fall of the Umayyad Caliphate in Cordoba in 1031, al-Andalus (Southern Spain), was divided into various kingdoms (Taifas). Some of these taifas became powerful, such as Toledo, Zaragoza, Seville and Badajoz. Although relatively liberal, they gradually lost power and finally, in 1492, the last Moorish dynasty of Granada was defeated by the Catholic King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain. [16]
The Ottoman Empire (1453-1922)
The center of the Islamic world later shifted to Constantinople (modern Istanbul) with the expansion of the Ottoman Empire. Established by Osman I in the late 13th century, the Ottomans ended the Byzantine Empire in 1453. For six centuries, they remained at the crossroads of Middle Eastern and European exchange.
To govern such a massive, multi-ethnic empire, the Ottomans recognized religious and cultural freedoms and initiated various modernizing reforms, notably during the Tanzimat period[17] (1839–1876). Tanzimat reforms included modernization of legal and military establishments, appointing non-Muslims to administration, granting equal rights to Jews and Christians, and establishing secular schools and universities. During this period the traditional Janissary Corps[18] were abolished in favor of European-style training.
However, conservative groups vehemently opposed these reforms. In 1876, a constitutional government was promised, but fundamentalist pressure and the desire for absolute power of the Sultanate prevented its full implementation. In 1909, fundamentalists launched a counter-revolution to restore Sharia rule. This was eventually suppressed by the Young Turks[19]—a secularist revolutionary group—leading to the exile of Sultan Abdul Hamid II.[20]
During World War I, the Ottoman Empire was part of the Central Powers alliance.[21] Following the defeat of that alliance, the empire was dismantled by the Treaty of Sèvres[22] on August 10, 1920, signed with a group of Allied nations. Under this treaty, imperial territories were partitioned among European powers, leaving only a small portion of Anatolia under Turkish control. Protests against these terms fuelled the rise of Turkish nationalism and intensified the struggle for independence. From 1919 to 1923, this struggle, led by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (1881–1938), was waged against the Allies and the remnants of the weak Ottoman government. The Ottoman Sultanate was abolished in 1922 by the victorious army of Kemal Atatürk.
Emergence of modern Turkey and Atatürk’s Secular Reforms
On October 29, 1923, the Republic of Turkey was born with Kemal Atatürk as the President. Finally, in 1924, his government announced the ultimate abolition of the Ottoman Caliphate, ending the Islamic system of governance and establishing a secular Turkish Republic.[23] As the first president of the new republic during the period from 1923 to 1938, he implemented extensive reforms to modernize and secularize Turkey, including:
· Abolishing Islamic institutions and religious courts.
· Replacing the Arabic script with the Latin alphabet.
· Promoting a secular education and legal system.
· Granting women the right to vote and participate in public life.
· Encouraging Western-style clothing and banning traditional headwear like the fez.
· Industrialization, infrastructure development, and state-led economic planning to modernize the economy.
Atatürk emphasized Turkish nationalism, promoting a unified identity based on language, culture, and history; while distancing Turkey from its Ottoman past and Islamic governance. These reforms transformed Turkey into a multi-ethnic, secular, nationalist republic and laid the foundation for a modern nation-state. Atatürk’s vision of modernization and Westernization continues to influence Turkey’s identity, although the influence of Islamic fundamentalism has been rising there since the beginning of this century.
The Resurgence of Islamic Politics in Turkey
In the late 1940s, Turkey introduced multi-party politics, allowing voters to elect the center-right Democrat Party in 1950. Subsequently, a gradual revival of religious values occurred. Islamist politicians, rather than attempting direct fundamental changes, slowly increased their influence within the state apparatus, steering the state toward their own inclination.[24] The ban on the Azaan (call to prayer) in Arabic was lifted, and religious education and establishment of new mosques expanded. However, for a long time, “Kemalist” institutions, comprising the military and bureaucracy, opposed the rise of Islamists in support of Atatürk’s secular state. Between 1960 and 1980, the military carried out three coups, toppling governments whenever they deemed them too Islamist or chaotic.
Currently, under President Recep Tayyip Erdogan and his ruling Justice and Development Party (AKP), Turkey has moved further toward conservative Islamic governance. Erdogan has forged political alliances with nationalists and conservative groups to strengthen support among religious voters. Since coming to power in 2002, he has sought to change the secular character of the state established by Atatürk, making it more Islamic-oriented. His government has expanded religious schools (Imam Hatip Schools)[25] and introduced more religious content into the national curriculum. In 2020, the Hagia Sophia[26] was converted from a museum back into a mosque, publicly signalling Turkey's shift toward Islamic identity over secularism. He has imposed restrictions on various secular social gatherings, personal rights, alcohol sales, and aligning public life with conservative Islamic values. Although Turkey officially remains a secular state, these events signify the erosion of its secular legacy, leading to persistent concerns and protests from secularists and opposition parties.[27]
Modernization in Egypt
Similar to Turkey, modernization efforts took place in Egypt during the 19th century under Muhammad Ali Pasha (1769–1849).[28] Muhammad Ali ruled Egypt from 1805 to 1848. Initially he was the Ottoman Governor (Wali) of Egypt. But, he later became a rebel, defeated the Ottoman Sultan, and established an independent dynasty. He initiated reforms in administration, the military, education, and infrastructure. Some of the key aspects of these reforms include:
· Centralization of political power.
· Modernization of the army based on European systems.
· Establishing schools for medicine, technology, and languages.
· Sending students to Europe for studies.
· Launching printing presses and encouraging industrialization and agriculture (especially overhauling cotton production).
· In 1819, his government established the Bulaq Press[29], the first indigenous printing press in the Arab world, which published the government’s official gazette. To support industrial and military modernization, he founded several schools where French books were studied.
In the 1820s, Muhammad Ali sent the first educational “missions” of Egyptian students to Europe. This contact programs with the Western world gave birth to a body of work ushering the dawn of the Arabic literary renaissance, a phenomenon known as the Nahda[30]. One of the pioneers of this Egyptian renaissance, Rifa'a al-Tahtawi (1801–1873), was part of this mission. He supervised the translation of various subjects from French into Arabic, touching various branches from sociology and history to military technology. Tahtawi advocated for modern education and emphasized the moulding Islamic values with modernity. Similarly, his contemporary Hasan al-Attar (1766–1835) played a crucial role in introducing Western ideas and modern science to Egypt, encouraging rational thoughts and the integration of Western science into Islamic education. Later, at the start of the 20th century, Al-Azhar University, one of the pinnacle centers of Islamic learning, became a hub for reform where Muhammad Abduh (1849–1905) argued for the modernization of Islamic thought and the reinterpretation of Islamic teachings to confront modernity.[31]
This period also saw the initial sparks of women's rights and education. Reformers like Qasim Amin (1863–1908) and Huda Sha'arawi (1879–1947) advocated for gender equity, criticizing practices like the veil and polygamy. Qasim Amin, a judge in the mixed courts established by British rulers, was a supporter of Western liberal philosophy and Muhammad Abduh, condemning Islamic conservatism and co-founding Cairo University.[32] Huda Sha'arawi was a prominent leader of the 1919 Egyptian Revolution[33] against British colonial rule[34], demanding women's right to vote and participate in elections. After her husband's death in 1922, she stopped wearing the veil (Burqa) and headscarf (hijab), becoming a pioneer of modernity for Muslim women both in Egypt and in other parts of the world.[35]
Sovereignty of Egypt, establishment of a secular state and the rise of the Muslim Brotherhood
Egypt gained partial independence in 1922 when Britain unilaterally ended its protectorate status, though British influence over the Suez Canal and military affairs persisted. The 1936 Anglo-Egyptian Treaty granted further autonomy, but full sovereignty was achieved only after the July Revolution of 1952 led by Gamal Abdel Nasser (1918–1970). Under Nasser’s presidency, a secular republic was established.
However, the conflict between secularism and Islamic fundamentalism has remained a constant thread in Egyptian nationalism. While 19th-century rulers like Muhammad Ali and Ismail Pasha I (1830–1895) pursued modernization, the reaction against this Westernized expansion led to the founding of the Muslim Brotherhood [36] in 1928 by Hassan al-Banna[37] (1906–1949). The Brotherhood became a powerful anti-secular organization. Al-Banna rejected Western-led international organizations, believing Islamic revival must come from its own “pure” principles. He asserted that Islam is not just a religion but a comprehensive system of governance and freedom, rejecting the separation of religion and politics. His teachings were later transformed into a revolutionary and militant movement by the poet and bureaucrat Sayyid Qutb (1906–1966).[38]
Nasser’s secular, socialist regime often clashed with groups like the Muslim Brotherhood, leading to severe crackdowns. This struggle continues today. After the Arab Spring[39] of 2010, the Brotherhood briefly held power in 2012 before being ousted in 2013, returning Egypt to a military rule.
The Shia Context: Iran
Now, let us turn to the evolution of modern movements in Iran, a Shia-majority country. In Shia Islam, the clergy (Ulama) hold a unique and significant role as close representatives of the Twelfth Imam, also known as Imam Mahdi, the divinely guided leader of the Muslim community. According to Shia belief, the Twelfth Imam went into “occultation” (hiding) in the 9th century and will return as a saviour (Messiah) to establish true Islamic justice.[40] In his absence, the clergy are viewed as his guardians and intermediaries, tasked with guiding the community in religious, social, and political matters. This belief has historically granted Shia clergy immense influence in social and political movements, as seen vividly in the Islamic Revolution of 1979.[41]
In the early 19th century, modernization reforms in Iran were initiated by figures such as Crown Prince Abbas Mirza (1789–1833) and Amir Kabir (1807–1852). Amir Kabir, in particular, is remembered with great respect and sympathy for his efforts of bringing radical reforms. He met a tragic end due to his attempts at implementing anti-imperialist and modernizing reforms—a death regarded to many in Iran as martyrdom. His fall significantly delayed Iran's progress for decades and was perhaps inevitable given the rigid and authoritarian political system of the time.[42]
The Reforms of Amir Kabir
Amir Kabir implemented diverse administrative reforms, such as centralizing power by reducing the influence of regional governors and tribal leaders, implementing proper tax collection, reducing government expenditure, and introducing merit-based appointments. To modernize the military, he introduced modern training methods, hired foreign instructors, and established military schools and domestic arms factories. In education, he founded Dar al-Fonun[43], Iran's first modern institution of higher learning, to train students in science, medicine, technology, and military strategy.
His public health initiatives included introducing the smallpox vaccine, fighting diseases like cholera, and establishing Iran's first modern hospital and quarantine stations. He promoted local industry, subsidized cash crops like sugarcane and cotton, and improved irrigation for agriculture. Furthermore, he oversaw infrastructural developments like canals, forts, and the supervision of the Tehran bazaar.[44]
Iran's first official newspaper, Vaqaye-ye Ettefaqiyeh, was published during his tenure. He introduced lithographic printing to educate the public. In judicial reforms, he sought to limit the power of clerics to conduct trials and curb the practice of criminals seeking sanctuary in mosques. His efforts to curb British and Russian influence to protect Iranian sovereignty eventually cost him his life. Opposed by clerics, aristocrats, and the royal court, he was dismissed and exiled in 1852, and subsequently murdered. His legacy remains a symbol of progress in Iranian history. Other key thinkers of this era included Mirza Saleh Shirazi[45] and Mirza Malkum Khan[46].
The Constitutional Revolution (1905–1911)
The next major reformist event was the Constitutional Revolution, which sought to establish constitutional rule and democratic principles. By the late 19th century, Iran faced intense public discontent due to economic hardship, foreign intervention (Russia and Britain), corruption, and the autocratic rule of the Qajar kings[47]. Foreign concessions, like the tobacco monopoly, further fuelled nationalist sentiment.[48]
The revolution began in December 1905 following the mistreatment of sugar merchants in Tehran. Protests and strikes spread nationwide. In 1906, Mozaffar al-Din Shah (1853–1907) agreed to a constitution and a national assembly (Majlis). However, his successor, Mohammad Ali Shah (1872–1925), opposed the movement, eventually bombing the Majlis building in 1908. After armed resistance, he was ousted in 1909 and replaced by his son, Ahmad Shah.[49] Despite this success, internal divisions and Russian intervention in 1911 ended the revolution.
The Pahlavi Era and the 1979 Revolution
In 1925, Reza Shah Pahlavi (1878–1944) ended the Qajar dynasty through a military coup. He and his son, Mohammad Reza Shah (1919–1980), implemented modernization policies in an authoritarian regime that alienated much of the population. Their disregard for Islamic values and close ties with Western powers (especially the US and Britain) fuelled resentment.[50] Economic disparity grew alongside rapid urbanization.
Shia clerics, led by Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini (1902–1989), emerged as the primary opposition. Khomeini criticized the Shah’s secularism and corruption from exile. Intellectuals like Jalal Al-e Ahmad[51] and Ali Shariati[52] also criticized Westernization (Gharbzadegi). The Shah's reliance on the brutal secret police (SAVAK)[53] and the “White Revolution”[54] further isolated traditional communities.
By the late 1970s, a broad coalition of religious conservatives, leftists, students, and workers united to overthrow the Shah.[55] In 1979, the Islamic Revolution rejected secular values in favour of a theocratic state. Under the leadership of the religious head as the Supreme Leader, this Islamic rule continues in Iran today.
Islamic fundamentalism: resilient and rising
From the brief history of Islam, we see that since its inception, a repetitive cycle of two opposing reforms—fundamentalist and non-fundamentalist reforms—has been occurring in Muslim-majority countries and regions. Notably, whenever fundamentalist reforms had staged a comeback, they had inevitably resorted to violence to suppress dissenting voices, and destroy the mixed cultures evolved in the previous stage.
We also find that Islamic fundamentalists were successful to channel public anger in events of contemporary economic crises, social wealth inequality, imperialist aggression, and the dominance of foreign powers in subscribing fundamentalist ideology. Subsequently with active public support, they would successfully seize state power. This occurred in Iran, followed by Afghanistan; and we continue to witness such events in various Middle Eastern countries at the start of the 21st century.
This process accelerated after the fall of the Soviet Union. In the late 20th century and beyond, events such as the Iranian Revolution (1979), the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan (1979), and the US invasion of Iraq (2003) led to the rise of militant fundamentalist organizations like the Taliban, Al-Qaeda, and ISIS.
On the flip side, these groups do not also hesitate to join hands with imperialist and hegemonic powers when it serves to counter secular nationalist movements. A clear example is the understanding between the leaders of the Muslim League and British colonial rulers in India. Until the demand for Pakistan was put forward, they did not genuinely join the national movement against colonial rule; rather, they continued to cooperate with them. Another example, we find during the Liberation War of Bangladesh in 1971. Then, the Islamist party Jamaat-e-Islami played a deplorable role by siding with the Pakistani military.[56]
(Translated from a Bengali article written by the author with the help of Google Gemini.)
2/4/26
[1] Rashidun Caliphate (632-661 AD) by Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman and Ali. - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate
[2] 756-1031 AD.
[3] Also known as the Grand Library of Baghdad. - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Wisdom
[4] Christopher De Bellaigue, The Islamic Enlightenment: The Struggle Between Faith and Reason1798 to Modern Times, Liveright Publishing Corporation, 2018 pp-xxviii.
[5] Al-Khwarizmi introduced algebra as a distinct branch and developed Arabic numerals.
[6] Ibn Sina authored ‘The Canon of Medicine’, a standard reference in Europe for centuries.
[7] Ibn al-Haytham laid the foundations of modern optics through the study of light and reflection.
[8] Al-Biruni calculated the circumference of the Earth with extraordinary accuracy and studied the movements of the planets. He was a polymath and has been called variously “Father of Comparative Religion”, “Father of modern geodesy”, “Founder of Indology” and “the first anthropologist”. - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Biruni
[9] Al-Tusi developed sophisticated tools such as the astrolabe to model planetary motion, travel, and determine time.
[10] Jabir ibn Hayyan (Geber), introduced the experimental method and discovered processes such as distillation and crystallization.
[11] Al-Razi (Razis) contributed to medicine by differentiating between smallpox and measles and advancing pharmacology.
[12] Ibn Rushd (Averroes) wrote more than 100 treatises and books and his philosophical works include numerous commentaries of Aristotle, for which he was called in the Western world “The commentator” and the “Father of Rationalism”. - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Averroes
[16] The Fall of Granada in 1492 marked the end of Muslim rule in Spain; in 1609, King Philip III expelled the remaining Moors.
[17] A period of "reorganization" and reform in the Ottoman Empire.
[18] Elite infantry units that formed the Sultan's household troops; originally composed of converted Christian youths.
[19] A political reform movement in the early 20th century that favored a constitutional government.
[20] Christopher De Bellaigue, The Islamic Enlightenment: The Struggle Between Faith and Reason1798 to Modern Times, Liveright Publishing Corporation, 2018 pp. 323-325.
[21] Alliance of the German Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria.
[23] Christopher De Bellaigue, The Islamic Enlightenment: The Struggle Between Faith and Reason1798 to Modern Times, Liveright Publishing Corporation, 2018, pp. 366-368.
[24] Christopher De Bellaigue, The Islamic Enlightenment: The Struggle Between Faith and Reason1798 to Modern Times, Liveright Publishing Corporation, 2018 pp. 419-420.
[26] Established in 360 AD as a church; converted to a mosque in 1453; turned into a museum in 1934; reconverted to a mosque in 2020.
[27] Political polarization has been increasing between secular-democratic principles and conservative Islamic policies.
[29] Also known as the ‘Amiri Press’, established in 1820 near Cairo.
[30] Nahda (in Arabic) means ‘awakening’.
[31] Christopher De Bellaigue, The Islamic Enlightenment: The Struggle Between Faith and Reason1798 to Modern Times, Liveright Publishing Corporation, 2018, pp. 343-351.
[33] British forces successfully suppressed the revolution. Britain eventually recognized Egyptian independence in 1922 and implemented a new Egyptian constitution in 1923. However, the British government retained a significant degree of influence in Egypt and refused to recognize full Egyptian sovereignty over Sudan or to withdraw British forces from the Suez Canal. - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1919_Egyptian_revolution
[34] The kings of Egypt were British protectorates from 1882. It was a British colony until 1922. In 1922, Britain granted Egypt partial independence under certain conditions, but even then it maintained control over various internal affairs under certain conditions. For example, Britain maintained its rights to the Suez Canal. When British forces retreated under international pressure in the Anglo-Egyptian War of 1956, Egypt gained full independence. - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Egypt_under_the_British
[38] Christopher De Bellaigue, The Islamic Enlightenment: The Struggle Between Faith and Reason1798 to Modern Times, Liveright Publishing Corporation, 2018 pp. 383.
[40] Christopher De Bellaigue, The Islamic Enlightenment: The Struggle Between Faith and Reason1798 to Modern Times, Liveright Publishing Corporation, 2018 pp. 288.
[41] Christopher De Bellaigue, The Islamic Enlightenment: The Struggle Between Faith and Reason1798 to Modern Times, Liveright Publishing Corporation, 2018 pp. 399.
[42] Christopher De Bellaigue, The Islamic Enlightenment: The Struggle Between Faith and Reason1798 to Modern Times, Liveright Publishing Corporation, 2018 pp. 171.
[44] Christopher De Bellaigue, The Islamic Enlightenment: The Struggle Between Faith and Reason1798 to Modern Times, Liveright Publishing Corporation, 2018 pp. 165.
[45] Mirza Saleh Shirazi published Iran's first newspaper in 1837.
[46] Mirza Malkum Khan was a prominent diplomat and the editor of the newspaper Qanun.
[47] This dynasty was founded by Mohammad Khan Qajar, who unified Iran in 1789. They ruled Iran until 1925.
[48] Christopher De Bellaigue, The Islamic Enlightenment: The Struggle Between Faith and Reason1798 to Modern Times, Liveright Publishing Corporation, 2018 pp. 261.
[49] Christopher De Bellaigue, The Islamic Enlightenment: The Struggle Between Faith and Reason1798 to Modern Times, Liveright Publishing Corporation, 2018 pp. 305.
[50] The 1953 CIA-backed coup against PM Mohammad Mossadegh deepened distrust of foreign powers.
[51] One of the most prominent Iranian writers, philosophers, ethnographers, and sociologists of the 20th century.
[53] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SAVAK - The domestic security and intelligence service of the Pahlavi era.
[54] Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi launched the White Revolution in 1963. It was a sweeping, state-led modernization program aimed at transforming Iran into a global power while pre-empting socialist unrest. It featured land reform, women’s suffrage, literacy campaigns, and industrial privatization, driving significant social and economic shifts before ending with the 1979 revolution. - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Revolution
[55] Christopher De Bellaigue, The Islamic Enlightenment: The Struggle Between Faith and Reason1798 to Modern Times, Liveright Publishing Corporation, 2018 pp. xxv-xxvi.
