There
are various interpretations among scholars regarding what "religion"
truly is. They often object to the common notion where one is identified as
Hindu, Muslim, or Christian. Instead, they delve into the etymological roots of
the word; for instance, the word ‘Dharma’ (a Sanskrit word for religion)
originates from the root meaning ‘to hold’ or ‘to sustain’. Then, to mean
religion they identify these sustaining characteristics at their convenience. I
say "convenience" because it allows them to easily exclude various
religious mandates and rituals, which are uncomfortable to these modern men and
women refined by their education in science and humanities of modern days, from
the "sacred" realm of religion. They dismiss such practices as the
ignorant outbursts of less educated believers, which has very little to do with
‘true’ religion. Yet, they have very little motivation to oppose them or publicly
criticise them. They maintain a generous silence on many such religious
practices, as if to allow kids to play on their harmless pranks.
However,
I do not wish to get entangled in the web of subtleties woven by these
over-enthusiastic religious scholars. Rather, I will judge religion in the
conventional sense in which it exists profoundly in our lives and society,
moving beyond literal etymological boundaries. Therefore, in this discussion, I
refer to religion as that which encompasses prevalent rituals, mandates, and
worship that influence our social life. Its scriptures, rituals, ceremonies,
social codes, and priesthood give a religion its distinct identity. Intimately
connected to this are its core propositions, worldview, inquiries into life,
and frameworks of arguments and
resolution.
In the
development of human civilization, these religions established themselves in
societies across various geographical regions in the distant past. Gradually,
they spread to different corners of the world with various branches. Many of
these, despite ruling over a civilized society and empire for thousands of
years, have disappeared from the modern world or are confined to very small
spheres. On the other hand, a handful of religions maintain their global
presence with immense influence in our life
even today. They act as catalysts in socio-economic and political movements and
reactions in many countries.
While a
religion seeks to tightly bind a specific community within its distinct sphere
of rituals and judgments, a real secular world independent of any religious beliefs
and practices exists outside of it. That is the modern world— encompassing a
socio-economic life very much dependent on the fruits of science and technology. There is no way to
deny it. People of different faiths and those who follow no religion are to
participate in the same way for their business, social interaction, and livelihood in this
civilized world. In these activities, enforcement of religious distinctions is always redundant
and, in many cases, appear to be childish and sheer madness. Whether traveling
by train, bus, or plane, or operating a smart phone with a flick of a finger,
the religion of a "Babaji" or an "Imam" has not been able
to dictate different rules in the mode of transportation and operation. Yet, some
of them have no hesitation in participating in this world and enjoying the
fruits of science and technology donning with their religious attire, tilaks,
caps, or beards, while unhesitatingly mocking modern secular knowledge, and claiming
superiority of their own scriptures, dogma and beliefs.
Not
just mockery; these opportunists, if blessed by the state machinery, may turn
this mockery into direct opposition and violent attacks, silencing secular,
scientifically-minded individuals. This is easy in the present time because
scientifically-minded people are increasingly becoming a minority. In the
enthusiasm for a "revival" of traditional culture, religious frenzy
and propaganda are at their peaks. In such an atmosphere, a common man is
naturally confused by the tug of war between religious rituals and modern
secular living. Particularly as social and economic crises deepen, the level of
this confusion rises, and a common person may lose his or her way in joining
the bandwagon of religious frenzy.
Religious
leaders and "businessmen" take advantage of this. In particular, as
presently the working-class is mostly disorganized having no powerful forum in championing their causes,
they helplessly surrender to the attacks of monopoly and big capital. Many of them
turn to the cloak of a religion. In the
absence of education, health, and livelihood, this modern secular world becomes
meaningless to them. They choose blind religious faith and various
unscientific, irrational rituals as
means to alleviate their crisis. On top of that, at the ideological
level, communal politics reign and raise fingers to the ‘other’ community as
the rogue of the crisis.
Therefore,
it has become necessary to bring forward those much-discussed topics about
religion again. Karl Marx initiated the study of the role of religion in modern
society in the preface of an 1843 writing: "Religion is the sigh of the
oppressed creature, the heart of a heartless world, and the soul of soulless
conditions. It is the opium of the people".
Nearly two centuries have passed since then. Revolutions in countries like
Russia, China, Cuba, and Vietnam followed the dictates from their rulers to
exclude religion from modern life. Subsequently, improved social living and
progress in those countries generally influenced the public mind, especially
the intellectual sphere. Meanwhile, in advanced Western countries, religion
maintained only an ornamental presence in civic life. For these reasons, the social
acceptance of secularism or the irrelevance of religious rituals and practices in
the civilized world has been recognized as a kind of universal axiom.
This
does not mean that the dominance of religion in society was low. In many
countries, including ours, religion was present with a clear form in the
spheres of politics, economics, and social policy. But even in these countries,
modern secular life has been recognized, legally championed, and had the state
patronage. Religious leaders were anxious and aggrieved by that recognition,
but remained restrained in their direct opposition.
However,
the situation began to change after the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991.
In the independent countries formed after the break-up of the USSR, the
religion of the majority began to spread its branches again through state
patronage. Even after seventy years of Bolshevik revolution, the fact that the candles
at the alters of God have been still flickering in private households, showed
that the roots of religious belief are
so deep and strong in our societies that they are not to be easily uprooted. Of
course, Soviet society was not purely secular either; the spread of modernity
was not equal across its various republics. Moreover, the latter Soviet rulers
were not as staunch as their predecessors. Examples can also be found of them
using religion to protect their interests and power. Essentially, as socialist
ideology lost its acceptability among common people in the 1990s, they gathered
under the umbrella of religious faith and loyalty.
In the
growing economic and political crisis of society, religion-based right-wing
politics, mixed with nationalism and communalism, has rapidly expanded its
influence. The present environment of violence and mistrust among different
faiths is its consequence. It is an irony that this world in the 21st
Century, situated at the height of scientific knowledge and technological
advancement, seems to be waiting to return to the dark days of the Middle Ages.
This is a strange paradox. Human civilization is already in an existential
crisis due to the environmental destruction and looming catastrophe on global
warming. Where a healthy, planned society based on science and technology was
needed, that society is today afflicted by the poisonous gas of communal
nationalism.
For
this reason, it has become necessary to go back to the roots—to look back at
those days when these religious beliefs were gradually weakening. People were
becoming increasingly reliant on modern knowledge and science. Therefore, it is
time to clearly examine the much-discussed topics of the conflicting positions
between religious belief cum superstition and modernity. There is another
reason; we must understand the cunning
tactics used by businesspersons of religions and politicians to frame religious
beliefs and superstitions within the context of modernity. This is because they
realized in the latter half of the last century that public support cannot be
gained by ignoring or directly opposing today's state of scientific knowledge.
Yet, their interests will not be fulfilled unless the influence of modernity
among the mass is neutralized. Thus, they continue to attack modernity in
various indirect ways. We need to understand how they present religion in the
context of modernity and upholds religious superstitions and beliefs to their
advantages including advancement of communal politics. This discussion centers on
these issues.
Fundamental human inquests
Since
the dawn of human civilization, two fundamental questions have occupied minds of
rational humans:
- How were this
material world and living beings created?
- What happens to
humans and other creatures after death?
In
ancient religions, various theories and myths were developed to resolve these
questions. They evolved over ages of civilization and social development. In
primitive societies, where people lived under favorable and unfavorable environmental and
natural conditions, they thought about presence of good and evil supernatural
powers within nature and environment. They acknowledged the role of these
supernatural powers in the success and failure in various events and aspects of
their community life. From this, religious superstitions and rituals were born
and became entwined in social life through the expansion of myths connecting
them to various events as probable
causes.
Later,
nomadic forest-dwelling groups learned animal husbandry and agriculture,
started settling in specific territories and built civilization. Religion
formed one of the theoretical and argumentative frameworks for the politics and
social policy of such a civilized society. Let us see how prevalent religions
resolved these fundamental questions within their argumentative frameworks.
How were this material world and living beings
created?
In very
ancient religions, the role of a specific god or goddess was assumed behind
various natural objects and forces. For example, in Vedic society Agni was the
god of fire, Pavandev - the god of wind; Surya (Sun), Chandra (Moon), Earth,
planets, stars, oceans, rivers, mountains, forests, and various
animals—everything that influenced (or considered to be influencing) community life
was thought to have a deity behind it. If these deities were pleased, favorable
conditions were maintained, tasks were accomplished, wars were won, and
diseases or epidemics did not occur. Conversely, their wrath led to unfavorable
consequences: natural disasters like floods, droughts, and epidemics, or a
defeat in war. Consequently, various social ceremonies and rituals such as
sacrifices, offerings, and prayers were introduced to please these gods.
It is
noteworthy that in these ancient religions, the questions such as, how this
world was created or how humans appeared, were not yet clearly formulated. In
many cases, one god or goddess among these was considered supreme and given the
role of creating the world. Even natural objects and forces, along with their
respective deities, were imagined to be created by that primary god or
"Parameshwara".
This creation story was also framed within the canvas of worldly objects and
events. Human imagination is centered around the visible and sensory world.
Whether it is the geographical description of heaven, earth, and hell, or the
inhabitants like gods, demons, devils, or various imagined creatures, the concepts
were taken from this material world. There was no depiction of a solar system
surrounded by planets rotating in elliptical orbits, nor imagery of remote
stars with their own planets and satellites, nor a picture of an expanding
universe containing the Milky Way or numerous galaxies. What modern science
observes about this world was not possible for ancient people. Therefore, the concepts
of their creation theories were based on the world they saw and felt around
them. Even the imagination of gods, goddesses, demons, and monsters carried the
reflection of human forms. However, to make them supernatural, sometimes they
were augmented with additional and hybrid organs. Some had four hands, some
ten; some had ten heads, some three eyes, even a thousand eyes. Some had horns
on their heads, others may have heads of
elephants, lions, etc. Objects of nature, forces, animals, and trees
endowed with such divine power would speak, judge, and think like humans, or
sometimes transform into human forms to act like humans. In that imagination, wings grew on a
horse, and mythical birds may have a combination
of hands, feet, and wings.
The
recognition of the role of a creator or God behind formation of this world is
also a product of the same thought process. Especially when civilization moved
past its primitive nomadic state into a permanent settlement of an agrarian
society, the theory that this world is the creation of a creator—like a
creative farmer, blacksmith, or potter—became stronger. The form of the creator
resembled an object or animal of nature. Sometimes it was a pair of geese;
sometimes a giant man or woman; etc. The creation of this earth, sky, sun,
moon, stars, and the creation of humans, other animals, and plants on earth happened
as the creator wished for it. Let us look into a few such myths and stories of
creation from different religions.
The Santhal Myth
We can
look at one such creation story
as it is entwined in the religious beliefs of the Santhal community. The
Santhals are an ancient community of this Indian subcontinent. Their language
belongs to the Austro-Asiatic group, tracing back to South and Southeast Asia.
It is estimated they entered the subcontinent around 2000 BCE. Initially they
were forest-dwelling hunters. Their
society gradually became agriculture-based, though forest life remained part of
their livelihood and culture. Therefore, signs of primitive forest-dwelling
group in their religious beliefs and society are found. The characteristic of
the Santhal religion is to worship nature.
In the
Santhal myth, at the very beginning, there was only water and sky in this
world. Soil was under that water. First, God (Thakur) created aquatic
animals like fish, crocodiles, turtles, shrimp, and earthworms. But God was not
satisfied with this. So he expressed a desire to create humans. Accordingly, he
created a pair of humans. But as he was about to make them alive, a giant horse
descended from the sky and ate them. God was deeply grieved by this, and vowed
never to create humans again.
Next,
he wished to create birds. From his chest, he created a pair of geese and make
them alive. They floated on the water and sought refuge in God's palm when
tired. Again, that giant horse came to destroy the birds, but God was cautious
this time. He transformed the horse into a sea foam and told the birds to float
on that foam. They continued to float and sometimes rested in God's refuge. But
they could not go on like this forever.
They needed shelter and food. So they prayed to God for creation of land,
so that they could take rest upon.
God
then thought of a way to create land above water. He told the turtle to bring
soil from under the water, but it dissolved before reaching the surface. Other
aquatic animals failed too. Finally, a small earthworm managed to bring soil
inside its stomach, and vomit it out onto the turtle's back to create land.
This is how the earth originated. On that land, he created forests, ground,
mountains, and rivers. Then that pair of birds built a nest there. By the laws
of nature, they laid some eggs. One day, it was seen that two beautiful human
babies—a boy and a girl—had emerged from those eggs. They were the first
parents of humanity.
Many
elements of the Santhal creation story match those in other religions. However,
with the spread of civilization and
changes in social systems, the role of these religions changed. Beliefs were nurtured
to favor the interests of the ruling class. In a primitive, simple community life, God is intimate and friendly. Even if he
has supernatural powers, he is not considered
to be omnipotent. He must follow the rules and laws of nature. Like an artisan,
he must employ his labor to create the world. His success is not always
guaranteed, as seen here. In his first failed attempt to create humans, he got frustrated by his failure and grieved by the loss
of his babies. As civilization advanced and society split into exploiting rulers
and the exploited subjects, the creator in religious belief also became
omnipotent and arbitrary.
Greek Mythology
In the
Greek creation story,
the world was created from an infinite void called Chaos, where energy and
matter existed with their shadowy presence. From that formless void, three
primitive deities were born: Gaia (Earth), Tartarus (Hell), and Eros (Love).
Due to the presence of Love, Gaia and Chaos created everything known and
unknown in this universe. Chaos gave birth to Erebos and Nyx (Night), while
Gaia gave birth to Uranus and Oceanus. Gaia and Uranus ruled first. Their
children included twelve Titans, three one-eyed Cyclopes, and three hundred-handed
giants called Hecatoncheires.
Conflicts
for dominance among gods continued until Zeus was accepted as their king. They
are called Olympian gods as they live in the Olympia mountain of Greece. Later,
mortal humans and other creatures were created by the will of the gods. Humans
were created by them in their own images.
Zeus ordered the sons of Lapetus, Prometheus and Epimetheus, to provide
various powers to these creatures. Prometheus was sympathetic to humans. Seeing
their helpless state, he stole the power of reasoning (from Athena) and fire
(from Hephaestus's gate) and gifted them to humans. For this, Zeus punished him
cruelly. He chained him to a peak in the Caucasus mountains where an eagle ate
his liver for thirty years—a liver that grew back every day to prolong the
torture. He was finally freed by Hercules.
The
Greek story highlights the immense power and arbitrariness of Zeus. At the same
time, the narrative highlights the significance of controlling fire in the
development of civilization and the importance of human judgment and reasoning
in its advancement. Another fascinating aspect of this story is the hint of
human defiance toward the gods and the gods' envy of human progress. In ancient
societies, religious deities did not claim absolute power; like humans, they
experienced victory and defeat, as well as envy, greed, and lust—in many ways,
they were profoundly human. Greek mythological tales also acknowledge the
existence of slavery, although that system is not mentioned in the myths of
creation.
Egyptian Beliefs
Egyptian
Pyramid Texts (c. 2500 BCE) offer glimpses into their creation theory.
They believed gods lived in the sky. The sun god (Ra) held a special place. The
daily cycle of the sun rising and setting was used as a metaphor for the cycle
of birth, growth, death, and rebirth. Sun god was recognized as the god of
creation. Different cities such as Memphis, Sakara, Hermopolis, Thebses, etc., had
different creator deities. Generally, they believed the earth was born from
lifeless, chaotic waters called Nu. The first mound of soil was called Benben.
Ra emerged from its peak, followed by other objects and beings.
In Hermopolis,
eight deities (four frog-headed men and four snake-headed women) represented
the pre-creation darkness and eternal universe. From them emerged a Cosmic Egg,
within which was the deity who created the world. Ancient religions like those
of Greece and Egypt often coexisted and recognized each other's deities, such
as identifying the Greek Hermes with the Egyptian Thoth. This contrasts with
the later Abrahamic religions (Judaism, Christianity, Islam), which claimed
religious superiority and have a history of mutual conflict that continues even
today.
Taoism (China)
The
main character of the Taoist creation story is Pangu,
a hairy giant who separated heaven and earth. Initially, the world was formless
and featureless. For 18,000 years, it transformed into a Cosmic Egg. When the
opposing but complementary forces of Yin and Yang reached balance inside, Pangu
was born. He used an axe to separate them; the clear Yang became the sky, and
the murky Yin became the earth. Pangu stood between them, pushing the sky up
three meters every day as he grew, while the earth too thickened.
One
version says that his body got transformed into the features of the world after
his death: his breath became wind and clouds, his voice thunder, his right eye
the moon, his left eye the sun, his head the mountains, his blood the rivers,
his muscles fertile fields, his facial hair the stars, and his sweat the rain.
The flies on his body became various animals.
The
above Chinese mythological narrative demonstrate how our ancestors relied on
the observation of natural objects and phenomena around them to present ancient
creation theories with logical reasoning. Consequently, the creator of that
genesis was also transformed from a formless entity into a personified
representation of the human body.
Hinduism (Vedic)
Hinduism
finds its roots in the Vedic religion. Its most ancient scripture is the Rig
Veda.
The hymns (suktas) of the Rig Veda were composed in ancient Sanskrit
approximately between 1500–1000 BCE (with some estimates suggesting 1900–1200
BCE). For a long time, these were not written down; instead, the descendants of
various sages preserved them almost perfectly through an oral tradition known
as Shruti (retention through collective chanting and musical practice).
They were eventually compiled around 1000 BCE and committed to writing around
the 3rd century BCE. Following the Rig Veda, Sama, Yajur, and Atharva Vedas
were composed between 1200–900 BCE. The Upanishads, which provide philosophical
interpretations of these Vedas, are recognized as integral parts of the Vedic
corpus. These texts continued to be composed and compiled until approximately
500 BCE.
Throughout
these texts, various accounts and theories of Cosmology and creation exist.
Since the Rig Veda is the oldest, portions of its relevant hymns are noted
here. These hymns are primarily found in the Tenth Mandala, which is considered
more recent than the other Mandalas, dating to about 1200–1000 BCE.
· Hiranyagarbha (The Golden Womb): The 121st hymn of the Tenth Mandala
states that the universe originated from Hiranyagarbha—a golden, cosmic,
womb-like entity. Later philosophical systems expanded on this metaphor. For
instance, the Samkhya philosophy posits that the universe germinates
from the union of Purusha (Consciousness) and Prakriti (Nature).
Other traditions suggest that Brahma emerged from the Hiranyagarbha to
create the world, or that the Hiranyagarbha is Brahma itself.
· Purusha Sukta (The Cosmic Man): The 90th hymn of the Tenth Mandala
describes the creation through the sacrifice of a primordial cosmic giant, the Purusha.
His body parts and mind gave rise to all objects, animals, and even the Vedas
themselves. This is why Hinduism considers the Vedas Apaurusheya (not of
human origin). This hymn also provides a foundational myth for the Varna
system (caste system), stating that Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras
emerged from the Purusha’s head, arms, thighs, and feet, respectively.
· The Nasadiya Sukta (The Creation Hymn): The 129th hymn, known as the Nasadiya
Sukta, is famous for its philosophical scepticism. It describes a
primordial state where the world was enveloped in darkness and water. Through
intense heat (Tapa), a single entity (Ekam) emerged, later
identified as Prajapati or Brahma. Desire (Kama) arose in
its mind, becoming the seed of creation. However, the hymn ends with profound
doubt: Who truly knows the source of creation? Even the gods came after
creation. Does the creator even know the truth, or perhaps even he does not
know?
Likewise
other stories of creation are also found in
various Upanishads. For example, the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad
(composed during 7th–6th century BCE) identifies a "cosmic hunger" as
the cause of creation. To satiate this hunger, the creator (Prajapati / Hiranyagarbha)
produced water and then divided himself into three parts: Fire, Sun, and Air.
By uniting ‘mind’ with ‘speech’, he created Time. When he created a child
(Prajapati) and tried to consume him, the child’s cry became the first sound in
the universe. Realizing that eating the child would not suffice, he created all
animals and objects, including the Rig, Sama, and Yajur Vedas. Since everything
was created out of hunger, everything in the world is essentially
"food" for him.
Another
section of the same Upanishad describes creation as the result of the creator's
loneliness. He divided his body into male and female forms. Their union
produced humans. When the female form took the shape of various animals out of
shame, the male followed suit, resulting in the creation of all animal species.
In this
manner, many more examples can be cited from the Vedas, Upanishads, and Puranas
where creation myths are prevalent in various forms within the Vedic or Hindu
religion. We observe how biological instincts of animals and humans—such as
hunger, desire, and reproduction—have influenced the conception of divinity and
the role of natural forces in the creation of this world. This diversity in
creation narratives demonstrates that followers of the Vedic religion were
under no obligation to adhere to a single, specific belief or dogma. Different
groups and sects explained the world through their own frameworks of belief and
logic, and the coexistence of these diverse views was recognized within the
religious scriptures.
However, one generally had to follow the social order and philosophy of
afterlife, enshrined in the Vedas, the key features of which included the
acceptance of the soul (Atman or self), the recognition of
reincarnation, and loyalty to the social customs of Varnashrama.
Buddhism and Jainism
In the
6th century BCE, Buddhism was founded, rejecting the distinctions of the Vedic
Varnashrama (caste) system, Brahmanism, the "divine" origin of the
Vedas (Apaurusheya), and the existence of both God and a permanent Soul
(Atman). Jainism, its contemporary, also rejected the Vedas and
Brahmanism but did not deny the existence of the soul. Neither religion accepts
the existence of a creator of this universe. Jainism believes the universe has
been flowing from time immemorial (eternal).
Buddhism posits that every object and event has a beginning and an end, with a
specific cause behind its origin. Therefore, a creator cannot be acknowledged
because a creator would also require a cause for their own appearance, which
would destroy the credit of being the "sole and unique" creator. In
Buddhist philosophy, the world is transitory (Kshana-sthayi); it is
destroyed and recreated repeatedly. It undergoes a cyclical change, expanding
from a contracted state and contracting from an expanded state.
In his
work Mahapurana, the Digambara Jain monk Jinasena (8th Century
CE) presents the following logic to refute the existence of a creator:
“Some
fools claim that a creator made this world. The doctrine of a creator of this
world is illogical, and should be rejected. If God created the world, where was
he before creation? If you say he was transcendent and needed no support, where
is he now? No single entity can possess the skill to create this world—for how
can an incorporeal (formless) God create a material world? How could God create
the world without raw materials? If you say he made the materials first and
then the world, you will be trapped in an infinite loop of cause and effect. If
you say these materials are naturally self-existent, you face another puzzle:
the whole world might as well be its own creator (thus, self-existent).
If you
say God created the world merely through his will without raw materials, then
the world is just his 'will' (a formless entity)—who would give credence to
such madness? If he is perfect and complete, why would the desire to create
arise in him? Conversely, if he is not perfect, his skill would be no better
than that of a common potter. If he is formless, effortless, and omnipresent,
how could he create anything? An entity without a base cannot have the will to
create. If he is flawless, he has no need to pursue the three goals of life
like humans. What profit does he gain by creating this universe?
If you
say he creates without purpose because it is his nature, then he is
meaningless. If he creates as a game (whim), it is childish and problematic. If
he creates due to karma from a past life, he is not an almighty Lord but
subject to something else. If he creates out of love for beings, why did he not
make his creation free of suffering and full of peace? If he were transcendent
(detached), he would not initiate creation; if he were embodied, he would not
be almighty. Therefore, the doctrine that God created the world is entirely
hollow. Furthermore, if God kills his own children (created beings), it is a
great sin! Good people should continue the fight against those who believe in a
world created by God; they are driven mad by this evil doctrine. Know that the
world was never created; just like Time, it is without beginning or end. It
follows the same principles as Time, as seen in both organic and inorganic
matter.
This uncreated and indestructible world is bounded only by its own natural
laws.”
In the Aggañña
Sutta of the Digha Nikaya, Gautama Buddha describes a vision of
cosmic evolution to a monk named Vasettha. Buddha explains that the world
eventually dissolves. Beings are then born in the 'Abhasswara' (Radiant)
realm,
where they dwell for a long time as self-luminous, sky-bound, and blissful
entities. After a vast period, when the world evolves again, these beings leave
the Abhasswara state and manifest in this world. At that time, the Earth is
covered in water and darkness; there are no sun, moon, stars, seasons, or
genders.
Slowly,
the earth's surface thickens like the skin on boiled milk, becoming delightful
in color, form, and taste. Greedy beings begin to taste this savory earth; as
they consume it, their self-luminosity vanishes. Then the sun, moon, and stars
appear, and day, night, months, and years are established. As greed, pride, and
ego grow, various foodstuffs like fungi, creepers, and rice appear and
disappear. Eventually, sexual organs develop, and through union, the human
world evolves. To bring order to a chaotic world filled with greed, the
Kshatriya (warrior/governor) class first emerges, followed by Brahmins,
Vaishyas, and Shudras.
Buddha
concludes that by following true Dhamma, a person from any class can attain
Nirvana, while anyone from these four classes who acts wickedly will fall into
degradation.
Zoroastrianism
Zoroastrianism
is believed to have originated in ancient Persia (present-day Iran) during the
latter half of the second millennium BCE (or, according to some views, the
beginning of the first millennium BCE).[17] Fire worship is the central feature of this
religion, which was founded by Zoroaster (Zarathustra). He compiled the ancient
Gathas, which are articulated in the religion's primary scripture, the Zend
Avesta.
Zoroastrian
cosmology[18]
speaks of an omnipresent creator known as Ahura Mazda—the symbol of truth and
the power of good. He is luminous and resides in the higher realms. With the
help of other deities,
he created the good forces of the world, including matter, humans, and animals.
However, a diametrically opposed entity of evil power is also recognized:
Ahriman (or Angra Mainyu), the god of darkness who resides in the lower realms.
Ahriman is a destructive force who creates evil entities, objects, and
creatures. Asha (Truth) is the spiritual
force that establishes cosmic order and it is created by Ahura Mazda. On the
other hand Ahriman sheltered Druj (Falsehood), the driving force behind the cosmic
chaos.
The
creation of this world is a result of the conflict between these two forces.
Ahura Mazda created the visible world specifically as a trap to ensnare the
forces of evil. He fashioned a floating, egg-shaped universe in two stages,
namely, the spiritual realm, followed by
the physical realm, created 3000 years after the spiritual realm.
Following
this, he created the primordial human, Gayomard,
and the primordial bull, Gavaevodata. Ahriman attacked this created universe,
leading to the deaths of both Gavaevodata and Gayomard. From the seed of
Gavaevodata, all beneficial plants and animals were born. For each of these,
Ahriman created a harmful opposite. Meanwhile, from the seed of Gayomard, a
plant grew whose leaves gave rise to the first human couple—the progenitors of
mankind.
Significantly,
Ahriman was unable to create a harmful counterpart to humans. Consequently, his
evil power became trapped within this material world. Therefore, living the
Zoroastrian faith means constantly struggling in the eternal conflict between
good and evil, choosing a path that ensures Ahura Mazda's victory over Ahriman.
Followers believe that this ultimate victory of good is inevitable.
Judaism and Christianity
Abrahamic
religions, namely Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, are monotheistic. Judaism
is considered to have been prevalent since the 13th century BCE. Christianity,
introduced by Jesus Christ,
spread during the first century CE. Islam was introduced in the seventh century
CE by Prophet Muhammad. The essence of the creation stories in these religions
is the same: one and unique God created this world from nothingness by His
will. A description of this creation is found in Genesis, a book included in
the Jewish Bible. Christians also recognize the Jewish Bible as their
scripture, referring to it as the 'Old Testament.' The same story of Genesis is
found there as well.
In
Genesis, the creation story is presented in two parts. In the first part,
a brief account is given of God creating the earth, sky, sun, moon, stars,
various objects, and living beings over six days. On the sixth day, God created
humans in His own image. Finally, on the seventh day, He rested. Another part
contains the legend of the first man and woman, Adam and Eve. After their
creation, they lived in heavenly bliss in a celestial garden. However, incited
by a cunning serpent to pluck the forbidden fruit, they were exiled from heaven
by God’s curse and fell to Earth. They are the original ancestors of mortal
humankind.
The
description of the initial stage of creation in the opening verses of Genesis
is as follows:
In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth. Now the earth was
formless and empty; darkness covered the surface of the watery depths, and the
Spirit of God was hovering over the surface of the waters. Then God said, 'Let
there be light.' God saw that the light was good, and He separated the light
from the darkness. God called the light 'day' and the darkness He called
'night'.
In the
following days, He successively created the separation of the sky from the
waters, the division of land and sea, the reproduction of plants and trees with
fruits and flowers, the sun for the day and the moon and stars for the night,
the cycle of seasons, aquatic creatures, birds of the air, great sea monsters,
various characteristic land animals, and so on. On the sixth day, the act of
creation culminated in the creation of humans in His own image, whom He
permitted to rule over all these creatures. He created both man and woman and
blessed them, saying:
"Be
fruitful and multiply; fill the earth and subdue it. Rule over the fish of the
sea, the birds of the sky, and every living creature that moves on the
earth."
The
description of the creation of the first man and woman and their heavenly days
follows: Immediately after creation, no shrub of the field had yet grown on the
earth, for God had not yet sent rain, and there was no man to work the ground.
But mist would come up from the earth and water the ground. Then God formed the
man from the dust of the ground and breathed into his nostrils the breath of
life, and the man became a living being.
Afterward,
God created the Garden of Eden—a celestial garden adorned with gold, precious
objects, the Tree of Knowledge, and other trees beautiful with flowers and
fruits—in a plain where four rivers
flowed. He placed the man in that garden. He then permitted him to enjoy
everything in the garden, forbidding him only from eating the fruit of the Tree
of Knowledge, and warning him that doing so would lead to death. To ease the
man's loneliness and provide him with a helper, He created all kinds of wild
animals and birds of the sky from the ground and introduced them to the man.
Nevertheless, no suitable helper was found for him. Then He caused the man to
fall into a deep sleep, took a rib from his body, and closed up the space with
flesh. From that rib, He created a woman and brought her to the man as a
companion. Though they were naked like new-born infants, there was no place for
hesitation or shame in their minds.
The
story of the fall of this man (Adam) and woman (Eve) from the celestial garden
is as follows: Now the serpent was more cunning than any of the animals God had
created. One day he asked the woman, 'Did God really say you must not eat from
any tree in the garden?' The woman replied, 'We may eat fruit from the trees in
the garden, but about the tree in the middle of the garden, God said, "You
shall not eat it, nor shall you touch it, or you will die." 'No! You will
not die,' the serpent whispered. 'In fact, God knows that when you eat the
fruit from that tree, your eyes will be opened and you will be like God,
knowing good and evil.'
The
woman saw that the tree was beautiful and good for food, and that gaining
knowledge was also desirable. So she took some fruit from the tree and ate it.
She also gave some to her husband, and he ate it. Then the eyes of both were
opened, and they saw that they were naked; so they sewed fig leaves together to
cover themselves.
God was
deeply angered by their disobedience and sent both of them down to Earth. This
man’s name was Adam and the woman’s was Eve. They are the primitive parents of
humanity. The stories of their children and their lineage are detailed in
Genesis. Among them, the story of Noah is notable, which describes a
mythological cataclysmic flood. In brief, it is as follows—
It
happened so that the people and creatures of the earth became unruly and
corrupt, God grew angry. He was pleased only with the righteous Noah. He
decided to submerge the earth in a flood of water and destroy all living
beings. Therefore, He instructed Noah to build a large boat or ark, which was
to be 450 feet long, 75 feet wide, and 45 feet deep. According to His counsel
or command, Noah built three decks in that ark and equipped it with appropriate
windows and doors. Then Noah entered the ark with his family. Following God's
command, various animals entered the ark in pairs (male and female).
This
cataclysmic flood lasted for forty days, and everything on earth went
underwater, destroying all creatures. Only Noah, his family, and his fellow
animal passengers were saved within the floating ark. Finally, after 150 days,
the floodwaters receded significantly, and the ark dropped anchor on the
seventeenth day of the seventh month of the great cataclysm. The water
continued to recede. On the first day of the tenth month, the mountain peaks
became visible again. After a year had passed in this manner, on the
twenty-seventh day of the second month of the following year, Noah found the
land habitable. Since the earth had become devoid of human life, modern
humanity originated solely from the children of Noah.
In brief, this is the creation story of the Jewish and Christian scriptures.
Islam
The
Islamic scripture, the Quran,
acknowledges the creation stories described in the Bible. However, it does not
contain a single continuous narrative like Genesis. References to the sequence
of events described in the Bible are found in various places throughout the
Quran. For instance, in the third verse of the tenth Surah (Yunus), it
is stated that God created the heavens and the earth in six days and then
established Himself on the Throne. In the fifth verse, it is said that He made
the sun radiant and the moon luminous,
and ordained for them phases so that humans ar able to count years and keep
account of time. In verses nine to twelve of the forty-first Surah,
it is described that God created the earth in two days, placed mountains
therein, and provided sustenance for all in four days. Then He turned to the
smoky heaven and, by His command, brought the heaven and earth together. He
created the seven heavens in two days and adorned the lowest heaven with lamps.
Further evidence of Islamic cosmology and the unfolding mystery of creation is
found in verses 30 to 33 of the twenty-first Surah, Al-Anbiya. These
verses state that in the beginning, the heavens and the earth were joined
together. God separated them. He created all living things from water and set
mountains on the earth so that it would not shake. He made wide pathways there
to provide a means of travel. He made the sky a protected ceiling for the earth.
He created the day and night, and the moon and sun, each floating in an orbit.
The
Quran also references the story of Adam and Eve.
These events are mentioned in verses 30 to 38 of Surah Al-Baqarah (the
2nd Surah). However, it is Iblis, or Satan, who whispers to Adam's wife
to eat the forbidden fruit. In the Bible, this role was taken by the serpent.
After creating Adam, God asked His angels (Malaikah) to prostrate (Sajdah)
before Adam. While everyone did so, Iblis refused. Consequently, he lost his
status as an angel and began inciting humankind to deny God. This same event is
described in verses 11 to 25 of the seventh Surah (Al-A'raf). The Quran
does not explicitly describe the creation of Adam from dust and his wife from
his rib in the same way the Bible does. The 189th verse of the seventh Surah
states that He created Adam from a single soul, and from it (i.e., Adam), his
wife was created.
Sikhism
Sikhism
is a monotheistic religion introduced in India. It is one of the world's
younger religions. Guru Nanak (1469–1539) introduced and preached this religion
at the beginning of the sixteenth century, primarily as a reaction to the
communal and caste-based divisions of Hinduism and Islam. In Sikhism, God is
recognized as the Creator of this universe. However, unlike other religions, no
specific creation myth or story is presented.
Similar to Hindu belief, Sikhism holds that this creation undergoes repeated
emergence and destruction. The Creator, Sustainer, and Destroyer of that
creation are Brahma, Vishnu, and Maheshwar, as described
in the Puranas of Hinduism. However, in Sikhism, these are not separate
entities; they are all manifestations of the same one God.
In the Sikh scripture 'Adi Granth,' the fifteenth Maru Solhe
(poem) states: "For countless ages, there was utter darkness. There was
neither heaven nor earth. Neither moon nor sun. There was only the infinite
Command (Hukam) of God." When God willed, He created the world. He
created everything, even Brahma, Vishnu, and Maheshwar.
Thus,
we see that from ancient times to more recent periods, the theories and stories
established in various religions regarding the origin and structure of the
universe have been influenced by the contemporary social life, and limited by the
power of observation of this material world. We can further observe that the
religions of a particular region influence one another. Specifically, over
time, previously established beliefs largely find a place in subsequent
religious faiths. Conceptions within the same religion also evolve over time.
Sometimes, after a long period, these evolved ideas may even stand in
opposition to the theories or stories of the original scriptures.
What is the Destiny of Humans After Death?
Another
question that has profoundly occupied human thought is: "What is the
destiny of a creature—specifically a human—after death?" Religions have
presented various philosophies and theories regarding this. According to some, ‘they’
(the dead creatures including humans) exist all around us in an incorporeal
form, occasionally making their presence known. They are even believed to
influence the events of this material world. Consequently, various rituals and
ceremonies are prescribed to satisfy ‘them’. This belief is primarily observed
in religions prevalent in primitive social systems, the remnants of which
persist in religions that emerged in later, in more advanced societies.
Another
view holds that beyond this material or temporal world, there is an invisible
world or afterlife. This is where the incorporeal unit of a living being
resides after death. In Greco-Roman religion, they inhabit the invisible world
in the same physical form they had on earth.
In
Vedic or Hindu religion, this incorporeal unit is called the Atman
(Soul). It is unbreakable, inflammable, insoluble, and cannot be withered.
This soul travels to the afterlife, returns from there to this world, and
assumes a new body.
However, those among them who are "holy souls" do not undergo
rebirth; they attain complete liberation. Following this theory are the
concepts of Heaven, Hell, and Earth; the judgment of sin and virtue; Karma;
rebirth; and the attainment of Moksha or Nirvana. These latter concepts are
also recognized in Buddhism and Jainism, although they reject ideas like God,
Heaven, Hell, and the afterlife. An example of how these ideas were formed is
presented here from an ancient Upanishad.
In the
Chandogya Upanishad,
a refined theory is presented regarding cycles
of birth, death and the sates after death of creatures.
When Shvetaketu, son of Aruni, arrived at the court of King Pravahana of
Panchala, the King, to test his education taught by his father, asked him
several questions regarding the ascent of creatures after death and their
return to Earth. When Shvetaketu expressed ignorance on these matters, the King
rebuked him. Shvetaketu returned to his father, Gautama,
who then accompanied him to the King to request lessons on these subjects. The
King agreed and provided an explanation, introducing the Panchagni (Five
Fires) theory regarding the mysteries of birth, life, death, ascent to higher
realms, and rebirth.
A brief description and explanation, following the commentary by Shankaracharya,
is given below.
To
understand Pravahana’s Panchagni theory, we must understand the primary
elements and materials of Vedic fire worship (Yajna) or sacrificial
rituals. In this ritual, Fire or Agni is the object of worship, and the
person performing the sacrifice is the worshipper (Yajaman). A wooden
altar holds the fire. That wood is called Samidh. Outside the fire
burning on the altar, the pulsating flames emit smoke (Dhuma), produce
embers (Angara), and throw out sparks (Visphulinga). In this
ritual, the Yajaman offers a "substance" to Agni and gains a desired
"object" or outcome. In that sense, through the ritual, the
sacrificed "substance" is transformed into the desired
"object." In the Panchagni theory, the five aforementioned processes
of the life-death cycle are compared to individual rituals, and the objects of
worship and other materials of these rituals are explained through metaphors.
Ultimately, the "deities," acting as Yajaman, offer sacrifices in
these rituals to facilitate the changes in the cyclical states of life and
death of creatures. One example is given here:
The
King identifies the Dyuloka (the celestial realm or infinite space above
the earth) as the First Agni and says:
"O
Gautama, this famous Dyuloka is a fire; the Sun is its fuel (Samidh), the rays
are its smoke, the day is its flame (Archi), the Moon is its embers, and the
stars are its sparks."
It is
then said that in this fire-like celestial realm, the deities sacrifice Shraddha
or water particles, which results in the rise of King Soma or the Moon.[42]
In this
manner, through rituals involving the five fires—Dyuloka (Celestial
Realm), Parjanya (Clouds), Prithvi (Earth), Purusha (Man),
and Stri (Woman)—the deities offer sacrifices to produce shraddha
(water particles), the moon, rain, food, semen, and finally the fetus,
respectively. That fetus resides in the mother's womb for nine or ten months
before being born, performing worldly duties and living a full life; finally,
after death, he (she) is cremated in fire
by their descendants or priests and ascend to the higher realms as water
particles. After spending some time there, they are reborn through the same
process.
Pravahana
also sheds light on how this ascent occurs and in which realms or states they
reside. According to him, there are two types of ascent based on the Karma of a
person’s earthly life. For instance, forest-dwelling ascetics or householders
knowledgeable in the Panchagni theory ascend as rays or in a vehicle of
light. Their journey proceeds through the day, the bright fortnight (Shukla
Paksha), the months of the sun's northern path (Uttarayana), and
after spending a full year, they pass through the solar and lunar realms to
become like lightning. In that state of lightning, a non-human person takes
them to Brahmaloka (realm of Brahma). They are not reborn.
On the
other hand, householders who performed only rituals and charity in their
earthly life ascend covered in smoke during the night and the dark fortnight (Krishna
Paksha). They remain in this state for the six months of the sun's southern
path (Dakshinayana). Then they go to the Pitriloka (realm of
ancestors), from there to the sky, and from the sky to the Moon. Creatures in
that lunar realm (Chandrama) are then "consumed" by the
deities. Subsequently, according to their Karma, they spend a specific time in
the Moon. Then they begin their return journey to Earth. First, they go to the
intermediate space (Antariksha), from there to the air (Vayu),
and from the air, they take the form of smoke, then of mist or water-bearing
clouds (Abhra). From mist, they transform into rain clouds. They descend
to Earth via rain. Finally, they lie dormant in the essence of various grains
like rice.
The rebirth
from this grain state is the most difficult! It can only happen when a creature
consumes the grain, and the semen produced from that nourishment results in
rebirth through procreation. Rebirth occurs in the category of the creature
that consumes the grain. That is, if a human is the consumer, the rebirth is as
a human child. But if the consumer is a pig, the birth is as a piglet. By the
same logic, if a Brahmin consumes it, the child is also a Brahmin. This is
where the theory of past-life Karma becomes relevant. Thus, religious conduct
including sacrifices leads to birth in higher castes like Brahmin, Kshatriya,
or Vaishya. Otherwise, one must be born either from the womb of a Chandal
(Shudra) or from a sub-human creature. But for those who spend their
lives outside these two paths—meaning they neither practiced spiritual devotion
nor performed worldly duties and sacrifices, or fell from society due to grave
misconduct
—the path of ascent is closed forever. They are bound to go on for ever in the
cycle of birth, death, and rebirth as inferior insects! There is no escape!
This amazing
Vedic theory from nearly three thousand years ago is not only startling but
also established a firm foundation for logic, argument, and judgment regarding
birth and death that has influenced human thought for millennia. From this
emerged various concepts like sin, virtue, heaven, earth, soul, and rebirth.
Similarly, this abstract theory has nourished the rituals and practices of
caste-based discrimination stemming from the Varnashrama system. The trouble is
that in the modern age, while we might easily accept such explanations as
fascinating imaginative stories, the abstract concepts of heaven-hell,
sin-virtue, soul, salvation, and rebirth refuse to leave us. Like ghosts, these
theories remain our shadow companions. Even today, the prejudice of caste is
deeply ingrained in Hindu society and continues to flourish. Despite "wise
words and advises" of many great men and women, it has not been
eradicated; rather, under the intimidation of the guardians of neo-Hindutva,
Brahmanism reigns supreme in its traditional glory.
In the
Abrahamic religions—Judaism, Christianity, and Islam—the theories of the
afterlife are strung on highly similar chords. All three religions believe that
in the future, the dead will be resurrected, when God holds a court for the Final
Judgment at the end of His creation. In that judgment, the virtuous souls will
once again assume human bodies to be reunited with God in His heavenly kingdom,
attaining immortality alongside other angels in eternal happiness and peace.
On the other hand, sinners will reside in hell as punishment for their deeds.
However,
there are some variations and specificities in the peripheral details of these
beliefs. According to the Jewish belief, after the resurrection of the dead,
God will send sinners to temporarily suffer punishment in 'Gehenna' (Hell),
after which they rejoin Him in the heavenly kingdom. In Christianity, it is
believed that Jesus Christ himself will reappear on the Day of Judgment to
judge the resurrected dead; based on accounts of their sins and virtues, He
will decide their residence in heaven or hell.
In
Islamic scriptures, a vivid visual description of this Heaven (Jannah)
and Hell (Jahannum) is provided. While Jannah is adorned with various
elements for a life full of comforts and pleasures, with green meadows,
enchanting gardens, flowing streams, fruit-laden orchards, and the
companionship of beautiful Houris, Jahannum waits with the sword of
horrific punishment; it is a land of terror filled with blazing furnaces,
boiling reservoirs, scorching winds, poisonous creatures, and suffocating
smoke. In God's final judgment, the resurrected dead must go to either Jannah
or Jahannum. On this journey, one must cross a bridge called ‘Al-Sirat’.
For those destined for Jahannum, this bridge becomes as sharp as a whetted
sword, causing those unfortunate souls to slip and plunge into the deep
darkness of hell. In this way, 'Jannah' and 'Jahannum' in Islam exist at two
opposite poles of eternal joy and eternal agony. Only believers in Islam are
claimed to be eligible for getting permission from God to move toward Jannah. Conversely, for the heretics and followers of other religions,
Jahannum is predestined. Not just in Islam, Jewish and Christian scriptures
also emphasise on similar divine bias.
Setting
a goalpost of life after death is a central theme for every established
religion. Through this, it becomes very easy to specify the goals and
objectives of a human's earthly life. The desire to possess the key to the
gates of heaven in the afterlife becomes more primary than achieving worldly
happiness, peace, and prosperity. It is not just the lure of the
"key" of happiness and pleasures in heaven drives a devout person; the fear of being
scorched in hell is also held up in front. For this reason, ignoring modern secular
reasoning, God-fearing people do not mind remaining voluntary prisoners in the
blind alleys of irrational rituals and superstitions.
It is
also noteworthy here that while the goal of nature worship in primitive
societies was to satisfy imaginary natural divine powers to crave worldly
happiness and prosperity, the religions that emerged and evolved in more
advanced, class-divided societies shifted their target toward otherworldly
happiness and justice. By doing so, the vast masses of society—who are ruled
and exploited by a small privileged section—can be diverted from the goal of
immediate solutions to their worldly miseries and deprivations. Their days pass
intoxicated by the illusory nectar of heavenly bliss and the plea for punishment
for their oppressors at God's witness stand on the days of posthumous justice.
In this way, religion truly becomes the “sigh of the oppressed” and the “opium
of the masses”!
12/2/26
(Translated
from an article written in Bengali with the help of Google Gemini.)
