There are various interpretations among scholars regarding what "religion" truly is. They often object to the common notion where one is identified as Hindu, Muslim, or Christian. Instead, they delve into the etymological roots of the word; for instance, the word ‘Dharma’ (a Sanskrit word for religion) originates from the root meaning ‘to hold’ or ‘to sustain’. Then, to mean religion they identify these sustaining characteristics at their convenience. I say "convenience" because it allows them to easily exclude various religious mandates and rituals, which are uncomfortable to these modern men and women refined by their education in science and humanities of modern days, from the "sacred" realm of religion. They dismiss such practices as the ignorant outbursts of less educated believers, which has very little to do with ‘true’ religion. Yet, they have very little motivation to oppose them or publicly criticise them. They maintain a generous silence on many such religious practices, as if to allow kids to play on their harmless pranks.
However, I do not wish to get entangled in the web of subtleties woven by these over-enthusiastic religious scholars. Rather, I will judge religion in the conventional sense in which it exists profoundly in our lives and society, moving beyond literal etymological boundaries. Therefore, in this discussion, I refer to religion as that which encompasses prevalent rituals, mandates, and worship that influence our social life. Its scriptures, rituals, ceremonies, social codes, and priesthood give a religion its distinct identity. Intimately connected to this are its core propositions, worldview, inquiries into life, and frameworks of arguments and resolution.
In the development of human civilization, these religions established themselves in societies across various geographical regions in the distant past. Gradually, they spread to different corners of the world with various branches. Many of these, despite ruling over a civilized society and empire for thousands of years, have disappeared from the modern world or are confined to very small spheres. On the other hand, a handful of religions maintain their global presence with immense influence in our life even today. They act as catalysts in socio-economic and political movements and reactions in many countries.
While a religion seeks to tightly bind a specific community within its distinct sphere of rituals and judgments, a real secular world independent of any religious beliefs and practices exists outside of it. That is the modern world— encompassing a socio-economic life very much dependent on the fruits of science and technology. There is no way to deny it. People of different faiths and those who follow no religion are to participate in the same way for their business, social interaction, and livelihood in this civilized world. In these activities, enforcement of religious distinctions is always redundant and, in many cases, appear to be childish and sheer madness. Whether traveling by train, bus, or plane, or operating a smart phone with a flick of a finger, the religion of a "Babaji" or an "Imam" has not been able to dictate different rules in the mode of transportation and operation. Yet, some of them have no hesitation in participating in this world and enjoying the fruits of science and technology donning with their religious attire, tilaks, caps, or beards, while unhesitatingly mocking modern secular knowledge, and claiming superiority of their own scriptures, dogma and beliefs.
Not just mockery; these opportunists, if blessed by the state machinery, may turn this mockery into direct opposition and violent attacks, silencing secular, scientifically-minded individuals. This is easy in the present time because scientifically-minded people are increasingly becoming a minority. In the enthusiasm for a "revival" of traditional culture, religious frenzy and propaganda are at their peaks. In such an atmosphere, a common man is naturally confused by the tug of war between religious rituals and modern secular living. Particularly as social and economic crises deepen, the level of this confusion rises, and a common person may lose his or her way in joining the bandwagon of religious frenzy.
Religious leaders and "businessmen" take advantage of this. In particular, as presently the working-class is mostly disorganized having no powerful forum in championing their causes, they helplessly surrender to the attacks of monopoly and big capital. Many of them turn to the cloak of a religion. In the absence of education, health, and livelihood, this modern secular world becomes meaningless to them. They choose blind religious faith and various unscientific, irrational rituals as means to alleviate their crisis. On top of that, at the ideological level, communal politics reign and raise fingers to the ‘other’ community as the rogue of the crisis.
Therefore, it has become necessary to bring forward those much-discussed topics about religion again. Karl Marx initiated the study of the role of religion in modern society in the preface of an 1843 writing: "Religion is the sigh of the oppressed creature, the heart of a heartless world, and the soul of soulless conditions. It is the opium of the people"[1]. Nearly two centuries have passed since then. Revolutions in countries like Russia, China, Cuba, and Vietnam followed the dictates from their rulers to exclude religion from modern life. Subsequently, improved social living and progress in those countries generally influenced the public mind, especially the intellectual sphere. Meanwhile, in advanced Western countries, religion maintained only an ornamental presence in civic life. For these reasons, the social acceptance of secularism or the irrelevance of religious rituals and practices in the civilized world has been recognized as a kind of universal axiom.
This does not mean that the dominance of religion in society was low. In many countries, including ours, religion was present with a clear form in the spheres of politics, economics, and social policy. But even in these countries, modern secular life has been recognized, legally championed, and had the state patronage. Religious leaders were anxious and aggrieved by that recognition, but remained restrained in their direct opposition.
However, the situation began to change after the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. In the independent countries formed after the break-up of the USSR, the religion of the majority began to spread its branches again through state patronage. Even after seventy years of Bolshevik revolution, the fact that the candles at the alters of God have been still flickering in private households, showed that the roots of religious belief are so deep and strong in our societies that they are not to be easily uprooted. Of course, Soviet society was not purely secular either; the spread of modernity was not equal across its various republics. Moreover, the latter Soviet rulers were not as staunch as their predecessors. Examples can also be found of them using religion to protect their interests and power. Essentially, as socialist ideology lost its acceptability among common people in the 1990s, they gathered under the umbrella of religious faith and loyalty.
In the growing economic and political crisis of society, religion-based right-wing politics, mixed with nationalism and communalism, has rapidly expanded its influence. The present environment of violence and mistrust among different faiths is its consequence. It is an irony that this world in the 21st Century, situated at the height of scientific knowledge and technological advancement, seems to be waiting to return to the dark days of the Middle Ages. This is a strange paradox. Human civilization is already in an existential crisis due to the environmental destruction and looming catastrophe on global warming. Where a healthy, planned society based on science and technology was needed, that society is today afflicted by the poisonous gas of communal nationalism.
For this reason, it has become necessary to go back to the roots—to look back at those days when these religious beliefs were gradually weakening. People were becoming increasingly reliant on modern knowledge and science. Therefore, it is time to clearly examine the much-discussed topics of the conflicting positions between religious belief cum superstition and modernity. There is another reason; we must understand the cunning tactics used by businesspersons of religions and politicians to frame religious beliefs and superstitions within the context of modernity. This is because they realized in the latter half of the last century that public support cannot be gained by ignoring or directly opposing today's state of scientific knowledge. Yet, their interests will not be fulfilled unless the influence of modernity among the mass is neutralized. Thus, they continue to attack modernity in various indirect ways. We need to understand how they present religion in the context of modernity and upholds religious superstitions and beliefs to their advantages including advancement of communal politics. This discussion centers on these issues.
Fundamental human inquests
Since the dawn of human civilization, two fundamental questions have occupied minds of rational humans:
- How were this material world and living beings created?
- What happens to humans and other creatures after death?
In ancient religions, various theories and myths were developed to resolve these questions. They evolved over ages of civilization and social development. In primitive societies, where people lived under favorable and unfavorable environmental and natural conditions, they thought about presence of good and evil supernatural powers within nature and environment. They acknowledged the role of these supernatural powers in the success and failure in various events and aspects of their community life. From this, religious superstitions and rituals were born and became entwined in social life through the expansion of myths connecting them to various events as probable causes.
Later, nomadic forest-dwelling groups learned animal husbandry and agriculture, started settling in specific territories and built civilization. Religion formed one of the theoretical and argumentative frameworks for the politics and social policy of such a civilized society. Let us see how prevalent religions resolved these fundamental questions within their argumentative frameworks.
How were this material world and living beings created?
In very ancient religions, the role of a specific god or goddess was assumed behind various natural objects and forces. For example, in Vedic society Agni was the god of fire, Pavandev - the god of wind; Surya (Sun), Chandra (Moon), Earth, planets, stars, oceans, rivers, mountains, forests, and various animals—everything that influenced (or considered to be influencing) community life was thought to have a deity behind it. If these deities were pleased, favorable conditions were maintained, tasks were accomplished, wars were won, and diseases or epidemics did not occur. Conversely, their wrath led to unfavorable consequences: natural disasters like floods, droughts, and epidemics, or a defeat in war. Consequently, various social ceremonies and rituals such as sacrifices, offerings, and prayers were introduced to please these gods.
It is noteworthy that in these ancient religions, the questions such as, how this world was created or how humans appeared, were not yet clearly formulated. In many cases, one god or goddess among these was considered supreme and given the role of creating the world. Even natural objects and forces, along with their respective deities, were imagined to be created by that primary god or "Parameshwara"[2]. This creation story was also framed within the canvas of worldly objects and events. Human imagination is centered around the visible and sensory world. Whether it is the geographical description of heaven, earth, and hell, or the inhabitants like gods, demons, devils, or various imagined creatures, the concepts were taken from this material world. There was no depiction of a solar system surrounded by planets rotating in elliptical orbits, nor imagery of remote stars with their own planets and satellites, nor a picture of an expanding universe containing the Milky Way or numerous galaxies. What modern science observes about this world was not possible for ancient people. Therefore, the concepts of their creation theories were based on the world they saw and felt around them. Even the imagination of gods, goddesses, demons, and monsters carried the reflection of human forms. However, to make them supernatural, sometimes they were augmented with additional and hybrid organs. Some had four hands, some ten; some had ten heads, some three eyes, even a thousand eyes. Some had horns on their heads, others may have heads of elephants, lions, etc. Objects of nature, forces, animals, and trees endowed with such divine power would speak, judge, and think like humans, or sometimes transform into human forms to act like humans. In that imagination, wings grew on a horse, and mythical birds may have a combination of hands, feet, and wings.
The recognition of the role of a creator or God behind formation of this world is also a product of the same thought process. Especially when civilization moved past its primitive nomadic state into a permanent settlement of an agrarian society, the theory that this world is the creation of a creator—like a creative farmer, blacksmith, or potter—became stronger. The form of the creator resembled an object or animal of nature. Sometimes it was a pair of geese; sometimes a giant man or woman; etc. The creation of this earth, sky, sun, moon, stars, and the creation of humans, other animals, and plants on earth happened as the creator wished for it. Let us look into a few such myths and stories of creation from different religions.
The Santhal Myth
We can look at one such creation story[3] as it is entwined in the religious beliefs of the Santhal community. The Santhals are an ancient community of this Indian subcontinent. Their language belongs to the Austro-Asiatic group, tracing back to South and Southeast Asia. It is estimated they entered the subcontinent around 2000 BCE. Initially they were forest-dwelling hunters. Their society gradually became agriculture-based, though forest life remained part of their livelihood and culture. Therefore, signs of primitive forest-dwelling group in their religious beliefs and society are found. The characteristic of the Santhal religion is to worship nature.
In the Santhal myth, at the very beginning, there was only water and sky in this world. Soil was under that water. First, God (Thakur) created aquatic animals like fish, crocodiles, turtles, shrimp, and earthworms. But God was not satisfied with this. So he expressed a desire to create humans. Accordingly, he created a pair of humans. But as he was about to make them alive, a giant horse descended from the sky and ate them. God was deeply grieved by this, and vowed never to create humans again.
Next, he wished to create birds. From his chest, he created a pair of geese and make them alive. They floated on the water and sought refuge in God's palm when tired. Again, that giant horse came to destroy the birds, but God was cautious this time. He transformed the horse into a sea foam and told the birds to float on that foam. They continued to float and sometimes rested in God's refuge. But they could not go on like this forever. They needed shelter and food. So they prayed to God for creation of land, so that they could take rest upon.
God then thought of a way to create land above water. He told the turtle to bring soil from under the water, but it dissolved before reaching the surface. Other aquatic animals failed too. Finally, a small earthworm managed to bring soil inside its stomach, and vomit it out onto the turtle's back to create land. This is how the earth originated. On that land, he created forests, ground, mountains, and rivers. Then that pair of birds built a nest there. By the laws of nature, they laid some eggs. One day, it was seen that two beautiful human babies—a boy and a girl—had emerged from those eggs. They were the first parents of humanity.
Many elements of the Santhal creation story match those in other religions. However, with the spread of civilization and changes in social systems, the role of these religions changed. Beliefs were nurtured to favor the interests of the ruling class. In a primitive, simple community life, God is intimate and friendly. Even if he has supernatural powers, he is not considered to be omnipotent. He must follow the rules and laws of nature. Like an artisan, he must employ his labor to create the world. His success is not always guaranteed, as seen here. In his first failed attempt to create humans, he got frustrated by his failure and grieved by the loss of his babies. As civilization advanced and society split into exploiting rulers and the exploited subjects, the creator in religious belief also became omnipotent and arbitrary.
Greek Mythology
In the Greek creation story[4], the world was created from an infinite void called Chaos, where energy and matter existed with their shadowy presence. From that formless void, three primitive deities were born: Gaia (Earth), Tartarus (Hell), and Eros (Love). Due to the presence of Love, Gaia and Chaos created everything known and unknown in this universe. Chaos gave birth to Erebos and Nyx (Night), while Gaia gave birth to Uranus and Oceanus. Gaia and Uranus ruled first. Their children included twelve Titans, three one-eyed Cyclopes, and three hundred-handed giants called Hecatoncheires.
Conflicts for dominance among gods continued until Zeus was accepted as their king. They are called Olympian gods as they live in the Olympia mountain of Greece. Later, mortal humans and other creatures were created by the will of the gods. Humans were created by them in their own images. Zeus ordered the sons of Lapetus, Prometheus and Epimetheus, to provide various powers to these creatures. Prometheus was sympathetic to humans. Seeing their helpless state, he stole the power of reasoning (from Athena) and fire (from Hephaestus's gate) and gifted them to humans. For this, Zeus punished him cruelly. He chained him to a peak in the Caucasus mountains where an eagle ate his liver for thirty years—a liver that grew back every day to prolong the torture. He was finally freed by Hercules.
The Greek story highlights the immense power and arbitrariness of Zeus. At the same time, the narrative highlights the significance of controlling fire in the development of civilization and the importance of human judgment and reasoning in its advancement. Another fascinating aspect of this story is the hint of human defiance toward the gods and the gods' envy of human progress. In ancient societies, religious deities did not claim absolute power; like humans, they experienced victory and defeat, as well as envy, greed, and lust—in many ways, they were profoundly human. Greek mythological tales also acknowledge the existence of slavery, although that system is not mentioned in the myths of creation.
Egyptian Beliefs
Egyptian Pyramid Texts (c. 2500 BCE) offer glimpses into their creation theory.[5] They believed gods lived in the sky. The sun god (Ra) held a special place. The daily cycle of the sun rising and setting was used as a metaphor for the cycle of birth, growth, death, and rebirth. Sun god was recognized as the god of creation. Different cities such as Memphis, Sakara, Hermopolis, Thebses, etc., had different creator deities. Generally, they believed the earth was born from lifeless, chaotic waters called Nu. The first mound of soil was called Benben. Ra emerged from its peak, followed by other objects and beings.
In Hermopolis, eight deities (four frog-headed men and four snake-headed women) represented the pre-creation darkness and eternal universe. From them emerged a Cosmic Egg, within which was the deity who created the world. Ancient religions like those of Greece and Egypt often coexisted and recognized each other's deities, such as identifying the Greek Hermes with the Egyptian Thoth. This contrasts with the later Abrahamic religions (Judaism, Christianity, Islam), which claimed religious superiority and have a history of mutual conflict that continues even today.
Taoism (China)
The main character of the Taoist creation story is Pangu[6], a hairy giant who separated heaven and earth. Initially, the world was formless and featureless. For 18,000 years, it transformed into a Cosmic Egg. When the opposing but complementary forces of Yin and Yang reached balance inside, Pangu was born. He used an axe to separate them; the clear Yang became the sky, and the murky Yin became the earth. Pangu stood between them, pushing the sky up three meters every day as he grew, while the earth too thickened.
One version says that his body got transformed into the features of the world after his death: his breath became wind and clouds, his voice thunder, his right eye the moon, his left eye the sun, his head the mountains, his blood the rivers, his muscles fertile fields, his facial hair the stars, and his sweat the rain. The flies on his body became various animals.
The above Chinese mythological narrative demonstrate how our ancestors relied on the observation of natural objects and phenomena around them to present ancient creation theories with logical reasoning. Consequently, the creator of that genesis was also transformed from a formless entity into a personified representation of the human body.
Hinduism (Vedic)
Hinduism finds its roots in the Vedic religion. Its most ancient scripture is the Rig Veda.[7] The hymns (suktas) of the Rig Veda were composed in ancient Sanskrit approximately between 1500–1000 BCE (with some estimates suggesting 1900–1200 BCE). For a long time, these were not written down; instead, the descendants of various sages preserved them almost perfectly through an oral tradition known as Shruti (retention through collective chanting and musical practice). They were eventually compiled around 1000 BCE and committed to writing around the 3rd century BCE. Following the Rig Veda, Sama, Yajur, and Atharva Vedas were composed between 1200–900 BCE. The Upanishads, which provide philosophical interpretations of these Vedas, are recognized as integral parts of the Vedic corpus. These texts continued to be composed and compiled until approximately 500 BCE.
Throughout these texts, various accounts and theories of Cosmology and creation exist. Since the Rig Veda is the oldest, portions of its relevant hymns are noted here. These hymns are primarily found in the Tenth Mandala, which is considered more recent than the other Mandalas, dating to about 1200–1000 BCE.
· Hiranyagarbha (The Golden Womb): The 121st hymn of the Tenth Mandala states that the universe originated from Hiranyagarbha—a golden, cosmic, womb-like entity. Later philosophical systems expanded on this metaphor. For instance, the Samkhya philosophy posits that the universe germinates from the union of Purusha (Consciousness) and Prakriti (Nature). Other traditions suggest that Brahma emerged from the Hiranyagarbha to create the world, or that the Hiranyagarbha is Brahma itself.
· Purusha Sukta (The Cosmic Man): The 90th hymn of the Tenth Mandala describes the creation through the sacrifice of a primordial cosmic giant, the Purusha. His body parts and mind gave rise to all objects, animals, and even the Vedas themselves. This is why Hinduism considers the Vedas Apaurusheya (not of human origin). This hymn also provides a foundational myth for the Varna system (caste system), stating that Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras emerged from the Purusha’s head, arms, thighs, and feet, respectively.
· The Nasadiya Sukta (The Creation Hymn): The 129th hymn, known as the Nasadiya Sukta, is famous for its philosophical scepticism. It describes a primordial state where the world was enveloped in darkness and water. Through intense heat (Tapa), a single entity (Ekam) emerged, later identified as Prajapati or Brahma. Desire (Kama) arose in its mind, becoming the seed of creation. However, the hymn ends with profound doubt: Who truly knows the source of creation? Even the gods came after creation. Does the creator even know the truth, or perhaps even he does not know?
Likewise other stories of creation are also found in various Upanishads. For example, the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad (composed during 7th–6th century BCE) identifies a "cosmic hunger" as the cause of creation. To satiate this hunger, the creator (Prajapati / Hiranyagarbha) produced water and then divided himself into three parts: Fire, Sun, and Air. By uniting ‘mind’ with ‘speech’, he created Time. When he created a child (Prajapati) and tried to consume him, the child’s cry became the first sound in the universe. Realizing that eating the child would not suffice, he created all animals and objects, including the Rig, Sama, and Yajur Vedas. Since everything was created out of hunger, everything in the world is essentially "food" for him.
Another section of the same Upanishad describes creation as the result of the creator's loneliness. He divided his body into male and female forms. Their union produced humans. When the female form took the shape of various animals out of shame, the male followed suit, resulting in the creation of all animal species.
In this manner, many more examples can be cited from the Vedas, Upanishads, and Puranas where creation myths are prevalent in various forms within the Vedic or Hindu religion. We observe how biological instincts of animals and humans—such as hunger, desire, and reproduction—have influenced the conception of divinity and the role of natural forces in the creation of this world. This diversity in creation narratives demonstrates that followers of the Vedic religion were under no obligation to adhere to a single, specific belief or dogma. Different groups and sects explained the world through their own frameworks of belief and logic, and the coexistence of these diverse views was recognized within the religious scriptures.[8] However, one generally had to follow the social order and philosophy of afterlife, enshrined in the Vedas, the key features of which included the acceptance of the soul (Atman or self), the recognition of reincarnation, and loyalty to the social customs of Varnashrama.[9]
Buddhism and Jainism
In the 6th century BCE, Buddhism was founded, rejecting the distinctions of the Vedic Varnashrama (caste) system, Brahmanism, the "divine" origin of the Vedas (Apaurusheya), and the existence of both God and a permanent Soul (Atman). Jainism, its contemporary, also rejected the Vedas and Brahmanism but did not deny the existence of the soul. Neither religion accepts the existence of a creator of this universe. Jainism believes the universe has been flowing from time immemorial (eternal).[10] Buddhism posits that every object and event has a beginning and an end, with a specific cause behind its origin. Therefore, a creator cannot be acknowledged because a creator would also require a cause for their own appearance, which would destroy the credit of being the "sole and unique" creator. In Buddhist philosophy, the world is transitory (Kshana-sthayi); it is destroyed and recreated repeatedly. It undergoes a cyclical change, expanding from a contracted state and contracting from an expanded state.[11]
In his work Mahapurana, the Digambara Jain monk Jinasena (8th Century CE) presents the following logic to refute the existence of a creator:
“Some fools claim that a creator made this world. The doctrine of a creator of this world is illogical, and should be rejected. If God created the world, where was he before creation? If you say he was transcendent and needed no support, where is he now? No single entity can possess the skill to create this world—for how can an incorporeal (formless) God create a material world? How could God create the world without raw materials? If you say he made the materials first and then the world, you will be trapped in an infinite loop of cause and effect. If you say these materials are naturally self-existent, you face another puzzle: the whole world might as well be its own creator (thus, self-existent).
If you say God created the world merely through his will without raw materials, then the world is just his 'will' (a formless entity)—who would give credence to such madness? If he is perfect and complete, why would the desire to create arise in him? Conversely, if he is not perfect, his skill would be no better than that of a common potter. If he is formless, effortless, and omnipresent, how could he create anything? An entity without a base cannot have the will to create. If he is flawless, he has no need to pursue the three goals of life[12] like humans. What profit does he gain by creating this universe?
If you say he creates without purpose because it is his nature, then he is meaningless. If he creates as a game (whim), it is childish and problematic. If he creates due to karma from a past life, he is not an almighty Lord but subject to something else. If he creates out of love for beings, why did he not make his creation free of suffering and full of peace? If he were transcendent (detached), he would not initiate creation; if he were embodied, he would not be almighty. Therefore, the doctrine that God created the world is entirely hollow. Furthermore, if God kills his own children (created beings), it is a great sin! Good people should continue the fight against those who believe in a world created by God; they are driven mad by this evil doctrine. Know that the world was never created; just like Time, it is without beginning or end. It follows the same principles as Time, as seen in both organic and inorganic matter.[13] This uncreated and indestructible world is bounded only by its own natural laws.”[14]
In the Aggañña Sutta of the Digha Nikaya, Gautama Buddha describes a vision of cosmic evolution to a monk named Vasettha. Buddha explains that the world eventually dissolves. Beings are then born in the 'Abhasswara' (Radiant) realm[15], where they dwell for a long time as self-luminous, sky-bound, and blissful entities. After a vast period, when the world evolves again, these beings leave the Abhasswara state and manifest in this world. At that time, the Earth is covered in water and darkness; there are no sun, moon, stars, seasons, or genders.
Slowly, the earth's surface thickens like the skin on boiled milk, becoming delightful in color, form, and taste. Greedy beings begin to taste this savory earth; as they consume it, their self-luminosity vanishes. Then the sun, moon, and stars appear, and day, night, months, and years are established. As greed, pride, and ego grow, various foodstuffs like fungi, creepers, and rice appear and disappear. Eventually, sexual organs develop, and through union, the human world evolves. To bring order to a chaotic world filled with greed, the Kshatriya (warrior/governor) class first emerges, followed by Brahmins, Vaishyas, and Shudras.
Buddha concludes that by following true Dhamma, a person from any class can attain Nirvana, while anyone from these four classes who acts wickedly will fall into degradation.[16]
Zoroastrianism
Zoroastrianism is believed to have originated in ancient Persia (present-day Iran) during the latter half of the second millennium BCE (or, according to some views, the beginning of the first millennium BCE).[17] Fire worship is the central feature of this religion, which was founded by Zoroaster (Zarathustra). He compiled the ancient Gathas, which are articulated in the religion's primary scripture, the Zend Avesta.
Zoroastrian cosmology[18] speaks of an omnipresent creator known as Ahura Mazda—the symbol of truth and the power of good. He is luminous and resides in the higher realms. With the help of other deities[19], he created the good forces of the world, including matter, humans, and animals. However, a diametrically opposed entity of evil power is also recognized: Ahriman (or Angra Mainyu), the god of darkness who resides in the lower realms. Ahriman is a destructive force who creates evil entities, objects, and creatures. Asha (Truth) is the spiritual force that establishes cosmic order and it is created by Ahura Mazda. On the other hand Ahriman sheltered Druj (Falsehood), the driving force behind the cosmic chaos.
The creation of this world is a result of the conflict between these two forces. Ahura Mazda created the visible world specifically as a trap to ensnare the forces of evil. He fashioned a floating, egg-shaped universe in two stages, namely, the spiritual realm, followed by the physical realm, created 3000 years after the spiritual realm.
Following this, he created the primordial human, Gayomard[20], and the primordial bull, Gavaevodata. Ahriman attacked this created universe, leading to the deaths of both Gavaevodata and Gayomard. From the seed of Gavaevodata, all beneficial plants and animals were born. For each of these, Ahriman created a harmful opposite. Meanwhile, from the seed of Gayomard, a plant grew whose leaves gave rise to the first human couple—the progenitors of mankind.
Significantly, Ahriman was unable to create a harmful counterpart to humans. Consequently, his evil power became trapped within this material world. Therefore, living the Zoroastrian faith means constantly struggling in the eternal conflict between good and evil, choosing a path that ensures Ahura Mazda's victory over Ahriman. Followers believe that this ultimate victory of good is inevitable.
Judaism and Christianity
Abrahamic[21] religions, namely Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, are monotheistic. Judaism is considered to have been prevalent since the 13th century BCE. Christianity, introduced by Jesus Christ[22], spread during the first century CE. Islam was introduced in the seventh century CE by Prophet Muhammad. The essence of the creation stories in these religions is the same: one and unique God created this world from nothingness by His will. A description of this creation is found in Genesis, a book included in the Jewish Bible. Christians also recognize the Jewish Bible as their scripture, referring to it as the 'Old Testament.' The same story of Genesis is found there as well.
In Genesis, the creation story is presented in two parts. In the first part[23], a brief account is given of God creating the earth, sky, sun, moon, stars, various objects, and living beings over six days. On the sixth day, God created humans in His own image. Finally, on the seventh day, He rested. Another part contains the legend of the first man and woman, Adam and Eve. After their creation, they lived in heavenly bliss in a celestial garden. However, incited by a cunning serpent to pluck the forbidden fruit, they were exiled from heaven by God’s curse and fell to Earth. They are the original ancestors of mortal humankind.
The description of the initial stage of creation in the opening verses of Genesis is as follows[24]: In the beginning, God created the heavens and the earth. Now the earth was formless and empty; darkness covered the surface of the watery depths, and the Spirit of God was hovering over the surface of the waters. Then God said, 'Let there be light.' God saw that the light was good, and He separated the light from the darkness. God called the light 'day' and the darkness He called 'night'.
In the following days, He successively created the separation of the sky from the waters, the division of land and sea, the reproduction of plants and trees with fruits and flowers, the sun for the day and the moon and stars for the night, the cycle of seasons, aquatic creatures, birds of the air, great sea monsters, various characteristic land animals, and so on. On the sixth day, the act of creation culminated in the creation of humans in His own image, whom He permitted to rule over all these creatures. He created both man and woman and blessed them, saying:
"Be fruitful and multiply; fill the earth and subdue it. Rule over the fish of the sea, the birds of the sky, and every living creature that moves on the earth."
The description of the creation of the first man and woman and their heavenly days follows: Immediately after creation, no shrub of the field had yet grown on the earth, for God had not yet sent rain, and there was no man to work the ground. But mist would come up from the earth and water the ground. Then God formed the man from the dust of the ground and breathed into his nostrils the breath of life, and the man became a living being.
Afterward, God created the Garden of Eden—a celestial garden adorned with gold, precious objects, the Tree of Knowledge, and other trees beautiful with flowers and fruits—in a plain where four rivers[25] flowed. He placed the man in that garden. He then permitted him to enjoy everything in the garden, forbidding him only from eating the fruit of the Tree of Knowledge, and warning him that doing so would lead to death. To ease the man's loneliness and provide him with a helper, He created all kinds of wild animals and birds of the sky from the ground and introduced them to the man. Nevertheless, no suitable helper was found for him. Then He caused the man to fall into a deep sleep, took a rib from his body, and closed up the space with flesh. From that rib, He created a woman and brought her to the man as a companion. Though they were naked like new-born infants, there was no place for hesitation or shame in their minds.
The story of the fall of this man (Adam) and woman (Eve) from the celestial garden is as follows: Now the serpent was more cunning than any of the animals God had created. One day he asked the woman, 'Did God really say you must not eat from any tree in the garden?' The woman replied, 'We may eat fruit from the trees in the garden, but about the tree in the middle of the garden, God said, "You shall not eat it, nor shall you touch it, or you will die." 'No! You will not die,' the serpent whispered. 'In fact, God knows that when you eat the fruit from that tree, your eyes will be opened and you will be like God, knowing good and evil.'
The woman saw that the tree was beautiful and good for food, and that gaining knowledge was also desirable. So she took some fruit from the tree and ate it. She also gave some to her husband, and he ate it. Then the eyes of both were opened, and they saw that they were naked; so they sewed fig leaves together to cover themselves.
God was deeply angered by their disobedience and sent both of them down to Earth. This man’s name was Adam and the woman’s was Eve. They are the primitive parents of humanity. The stories of their children and their lineage are detailed in Genesis. Among them, the story of Noah is notable, which describes a mythological cataclysmic flood. In brief, it is as follows—
It happened so that the people and creatures of the earth became unruly and corrupt, God grew angry. He was pleased only with the righteous Noah. He decided to submerge the earth in a flood of water and destroy all living beings. Therefore, He instructed Noah to build a large boat or ark, which was to be 450 feet long, 75 feet wide, and 45 feet deep. According to His counsel or command, Noah built three decks in that ark and equipped it with appropriate windows and doors. Then Noah entered the ark with his family. Following God's command, various animals entered the ark in pairs (male and female).
This cataclysmic flood lasted for forty days, and everything on earth went underwater, destroying all creatures. Only Noah, his family, and his fellow animal passengers were saved within the floating ark. Finally, after 150 days, the floodwaters receded significantly, and the ark dropped anchor on the seventeenth day of the seventh month of the great cataclysm. The water continued to recede. On the first day of the tenth month, the mountain peaks became visible again. After a year had passed in this manner, on the twenty-seventh day of the second month of the following year, Noah found the land habitable. Since the earth had become devoid of human life, modern humanity originated solely from the children of Noah[26]. In brief, this is the creation story of the Jewish and Christian scriptures.
Islam
The Islamic scripture, the Quran[27], acknowledges the creation stories described in the Bible. However, it does not contain a single continuous narrative like Genesis. References to the sequence of events described in the Bible are found in various places throughout the Quran. For instance, in the third verse of the tenth Surah (Yunus), it is stated that God created the heavens and the earth in six days and then established Himself on the Throne. In the fifth verse, it is said that He made the sun radiant and the moon luminous, and ordained for them phases so that humans ar able to count years and keep account of time. In verses nine to twelve of the forty-first Surah[28], it is described that God created the earth in two days, placed mountains therein, and provided sustenance for all in four days. Then He turned to the smoky heaven and, by His command, brought the heaven and earth together. He created the seven heavens in two days and adorned the lowest heaven with lamps.[29] Further evidence of Islamic cosmology and the unfolding mystery of creation is found in verses 30 to 33 of the twenty-first Surah, Al-Anbiya. These verses state that in the beginning, the heavens and the earth were joined together. God separated them. He created all living things from water and set mountains on the earth so that it would not shake. He made wide pathways there to provide a means of travel. He made the sky a protected ceiling for the earth.[30] He created the day and night, and the moon and sun, each floating in an orbit.
The Quran also references the story of Adam and Eve.[31] These events are mentioned in verses 30 to 38 of Surah Al-Baqarah (the 2nd Surah). However, it is Iblis, or Satan, who whispers to Adam's wife to eat the forbidden fruit. In the Bible, this role was taken by the serpent. After creating Adam, God asked His angels (Malaikah) to prostrate (Sajdah) before Adam. While everyone did so, Iblis refused. Consequently, he lost his status as an angel and began inciting humankind to deny God. This same event is described in verses 11 to 25 of the seventh Surah (Al-A'raf). The Quran does not explicitly describe the creation of Adam from dust and his wife from his rib in the same way the Bible does. The 189th verse of the seventh Surah states that He created Adam from a single soul, and from it (i.e., Adam), his wife was created.
Sikhism
Sikhism is a monotheistic religion introduced in India. It is one of the world's younger religions. Guru Nanak (1469–1539) introduced and preached this religion at the beginning of the sixteenth century, primarily as a reaction to the communal and caste-based divisions of Hinduism and Islam. In Sikhism, God is recognized as the Creator of this universe. However, unlike other religions, no specific creation myth or story is presented.[32] Similar to Hindu belief, Sikhism holds that this creation undergoes repeated emergence and destruction. The Creator, Sustainer, and Destroyer of that creation are Brahma, Vishnu, and Maheshwar, as described in the Puranas of Hinduism. However, in Sikhism, these are not separate entities; they are all manifestations of the same one God.[33] In the Sikh scripture 'Adi Granth,' the fifteenth Maru Solhe (poem) states: "For countless ages, there was utter darkness. There was neither heaven nor earth. Neither moon nor sun. There was only the infinite Command (Hukam) of God." When God willed, He created the world. He created everything, even Brahma, Vishnu, and Maheshwar.
Thus, we see that from ancient times to more recent periods, the theories and stories established in various religions regarding the origin and structure of the universe have been influenced by the contemporary social life, and limited by the power of observation of this material world. We can further observe that the religions of a particular region influence one another. Specifically, over time, previously established beliefs largely find a place in subsequent religious faiths. Conceptions within the same religion also evolve over time. Sometimes, after a long period, these evolved ideas may even stand in opposition to the theories or stories of the original scriptures.
What is the Destiny of Humans After Death?
Another question that has profoundly occupied human thought is: "What is the destiny of a creature—specifically a human—after death?" Religions have presented various philosophies and theories regarding this. According to some, ‘they’ (the dead creatures including humans) exist all around us in an incorporeal form, occasionally making their presence known. They are even believed to influence the events of this material world. Consequently, various rituals and ceremonies are prescribed to satisfy ‘them’. This belief is primarily observed in religions prevalent in primitive social systems, the remnants of which persist in religions that emerged in later, in more advanced societies.
Another view holds that beyond this material or temporal world, there is an invisible world or afterlife. This is where the incorporeal unit of a living being resides after death. In Greco-Roman religion, they inhabit the invisible world in the same physical form they had on earth.
In Vedic or Hindu religion, this incorporeal unit is called the Atman (Soul). It is unbreakable, inflammable, insoluble, and cannot be withered.[34] This soul travels to the afterlife, returns from there to this world, and assumes a new body.[35] However, those among them who are "holy souls" do not undergo rebirth; they attain complete liberation. Following this theory are the concepts of Heaven, Hell, and Earth; the judgment of sin and virtue; Karma; rebirth; and the attainment of Moksha or Nirvana. These latter concepts are also recognized in Buddhism and Jainism, although they reject ideas like God, Heaven, Hell, and the afterlife. An example of how these ideas were formed is presented here from an ancient Upanishad.
In the Chandogya Upanishad[36], a refined theory is presented regarding cycles of birth, death and the sates after death of creatures.[37] When Shvetaketu, son of Aruni, arrived at the court of King Pravahana of Panchala, the King, to test his education taught by his father, asked him several questions regarding the ascent of creatures after death and their return to Earth. When Shvetaketu expressed ignorance on these matters, the King rebuked him. Shvetaketu returned to his father, Gautama[38], who then accompanied him to the King to request lessons on these subjects. The King agreed and provided an explanation, introducing the Panchagni (Five Fires) theory regarding the mysteries of birth, life, death, ascent to higher realms, and rebirth.[39] A brief description and explanation, following the commentary by Shankaracharya[40], is given below.
To understand Pravahana’s Panchagni theory, we must understand the primary elements and materials of Vedic fire worship (Yajna) or sacrificial rituals. In this ritual, Fire or Agni is the object of worship, and the person performing the sacrifice is the worshipper (Yajaman). A wooden altar holds the fire. That wood is called Samidh. Outside the fire burning on the altar, the pulsating flames emit smoke (Dhuma), produce embers (Angara), and throw out sparks (Visphulinga). In this ritual, the Yajaman offers a "substance" to Agni and gains a desired "object" or outcome. In that sense, through the ritual, the sacrificed "substance" is transformed into the desired "object." In the Panchagni theory, the five aforementioned processes of the life-death cycle are compared to individual rituals, and the objects of worship and other materials of these rituals are explained through metaphors. Ultimately, the "deities," acting as Yajaman, offer sacrifices in these rituals to facilitate the changes in the cyclical states of life and death of creatures. One example is given here:
The King identifies the Dyuloka (the celestial realm or infinite space above the earth) as the First Agni and says:
"O Gautama, this famous Dyuloka is a fire; the Sun is its fuel (Samidh), the rays are its smoke, the day is its flame (Archi), the Moon is its embers, and the stars are its sparks."[41]
It is then said that in this fire-like celestial realm, the deities sacrifice Shraddha or water particles, which results in the rise of King Soma or the Moon.[42]
In this manner, through rituals involving the five fires—Dyuloka (Celestial Realm), Parjanya (Clouds), Prithvi (Earth), Purusha (Man), and Stri (Woman)—the deities offer sacrifices to produce shraddha (water particles), the moon, rain, food, semen, and finally the fetus, respectively. That fetus resides in the mother's womb for nine or ten months before being born, performing worldly duties and living a full life; finally, after death, he (she) is cremated in fire[43] by their descendants or priests and ascend to the higher realms as water particles. After spending some time there, they are reborn through the same process.
Pravahana also sheds light on how this ascent occurs and in which realms or states they reside. According to him, there are two types of ascent based on the Karma of a person’s earthly life. For instance, forest-dwelling ascetics or householders knowledgeable in the Panchagni theory ascend as rays or in a vehicle of light. Their journey proceeds through the day, the bright fortnight (Shukla Paksha), the months of the sun's northern path (Uttarayana), and after spending a full year, they pass through the solar and lunar realms to become like lightning. In that state of lightning, a non-human person takes them to Brahmaloka (realm of Brahma). They are not reborn.
On the other hand, householders who performed only rituals and charity in their earthly life ascend covered in smoke during the night and the dark fortnight (Krishna Paksha). They remain in this state for the six months of the sun's southern path (Dakshinayana). Then they go to the Pitriloka (realm of ancestors), from there to the sky, and from the sky to the Moon. Creatures in that lunar realm (Chandrama) are then "consumed" by the deities. Subsequently, according to their Karma, they spend a specific time in the Moon. Then they begin their return journey to Earth. First, they go to the intermediate space (Antariksha), from there to the air (Vayu), and from the air, they take the form of smoke, then of mist or water-bearing clouds (Abhra). From mist, they transform into rain clouds. They descend to Earth via rain. Finally, they lie dormant in the essence of various grains like rice.
The rebirth from this grain state is the most difficult! It can only happen when a creature consumes the grain, and the semen produced from that nourishment results in rebirth through procreation. Rebirth occurs in the category of the creature that consumes the grain. That is, if a human is the consumer, the rebirth is as a human child. But if the consumer is a pig, the birth is as a piglet. By the same logic, if a Brahmin consumes it, the child is also a Brahmin. This is where the theory of past-life Karma becomes relevant. Thus, religious conduct including sacrifices leads to birth in higher castes like Brahmin, Kshatriya, or Vaishya. Otherwise, one must be born either from the womb of a Chandal (Shudra) or from a sub-human creature. But for those who spend their lives outside these two paths—meaning they neither practiced spiritual devotion nor performed worldly duties and sacrifices, or fell from society due to grave misconduct[44] —the path of ascent is closed forever. They are bound to go on for ever in the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth as inferior insects! There is no escape!
This amazing Vedic theory from nearly three thousand years ago is not only startling but also established a firm foundation for logic, argument, and judgment regarding birth and death that has influenced human thought for millennia. From this emerged various concepts like sin, virtue, heaven, earth, soul, and rebirth. Similarly, this abstract theory has nourished the rituals and practices of caste-based discrimination stemming from the Varnashrama system. The trouble is that in the modern age, while we might easily accept such explanations as fascinating imaginative stories, the abstract concepts of heaven-hell, sin-virtue, soul, salvation, and rebirth refuse to leave us. Like ghosts, these theories remain our shadow companions. Even today, the prejudice of caste is deeply ingrained in Hindu society and continues to flourish. Despite "wise words and advises" of many great men and women, it has not been eradicated; rather, under the intimidation of the guardians of neo-Hindutva, Brahmanism reigns supreme in its traditional glory.
In the Abrahamic religions—Judaism, Christianity, and Islam—the theories of the afterlife are strung on highly similar chords. All three religions believe that in the future, the dead will be resurrected, when God holds a court for the Final Judgment at the end of His creation. In that judgment, the virtuous souls will once again assume human bodies to be reunited with God in His heavenly kingdom, attaining immortality alongside other angels in eternal happiness and peace.[45] On the other hand, sinners will reside in hell as punishment for their deeds.
However, there are some variations and specificities in the peripheral details of these beliefs. According to the Jewish belief, after the resurrection of the dead, God will send sinners to temporarily suffer punishment in 'Gehenna' (Hell), after which they rejoin Him in the heavenly kingdom. In Christianity, it is believed that Jesus Christ himself will reappear on the Day of Judgment to judge the resurrected dead; based on accounts of their sins and virtues, He will decide their residence in heaven or hell.
In Islamic scriptures, a vivid visual description of this Heaven (Jannah) and Hell (Jahannum) is provided. While Jannah is adorned with various elements for a life full of comforts and pleasures, with green meadows, enchanting gardens, flowing streams, fruit-laden orchards, and the companionship of beautiful Houris, Jahannum waits with the sword of horrific punishment; it is a land of terror filled with blazing furnaces, boiling reservoirs, scorching winds, poisonous creatures, and suffocating smoke. In God's final judgment, the resurrected dead must go to either Jannah or Jahannum. On this journey, one must cross a bridge called ‘Al-Sirat’. For those destined for Jahannum, this bridge becomes as sharp as a whetted sword, causing those unfortunate souls to slip and plunge into the deep darkness of hell. In this way, 'Jannah' and 'Jahannum' in Islam exist at two opposite poles of eternal joy and eternal agony. Only believers in Islam are claimed to be eligible for getting permission from God to move toward Jannah. Conversely, for the heretics and followers of other religions, Jahannum is predestined. Not just in Islam, Jewish and Christian scriptures also emphasise on similar divine bias.
Setting a goalpost of life after death is a central theme for every established religion. Through this, it becomes very easy to specify the goals and objectives of a human's earthly life. The desire to possess the key to the gates of heaven in the afterlife becomes more primary than achieving worldly happiness, peace, and prosperity. It is not just the lure of the "key" of happiness and pleasures in heaven drives a devout person; the fear of being scorched in hell is also held up in front. For this reason, ignoring modern secular reasoning, God-fearing people do not mind remaining voluntary prisoners in the blind alleys of irrational rituals and superstitions.
It is also noteworthy here that while the goal of nature worship in primitive societies was to satisfy imaginary natural divine powers to crave worldly happiness and prosperity, the religions that emerged and evolved in more advanced, class-divided societies shifted their target toward otherworldly happiness and justice. By doing so, the vast masses of society—who are ruled and exploited by a small privileged section—can be diverted from the goal of immediate solutions to their worldly miseries and deprivations. Their days pass intoxicated by the illusory nectar of heavenly bliss and the plea for punishment for their oppressors at God's witness stand on the days of posthumous justice. In this way, religion truly becomes the “sigh of the oppressed” and the “opium of the masses”!
12/2/26
(Translated from an article written in Bengali with the help of Google Gemini.)
[1] Marx, Karl. [1843] 1970. "Introduction." A Contribution to the Critique of Hegel’s Philosophy of Right, translated by A. Jolin and J. O’Malley, edited by J. O’Malley. Cambridge University Press.
[2] Supreme being.
[3] https://www.etribaltribune.com/index.php/volume-7/mv7i1/cosmography-in-the-oral-tradition-of-the-santhals-an-anthropological-perspective
[5] https://www.glencairnmuseum.org/newsletter/2021/7/13/ancient-egyptian-creation-myths-from-watery-chaos-to-cosmic-egg
[8] Most likely, they understood that these were all products of human imagination; therefore, they felt no obligation to establish any single view as the absolute truth. (Author)
[9] Indirectly referring to the Caste System.
[12] According to Jainism, to achieve Nirvana/Moksha, one must be steadfast in three things: Non-violence (Ahimsa), Non-attachment (Aparigraha), and Non-absolutism (Anekantavada).
[13] In Jainism, both soul and matter are indestructible—they only transform.
[14] Barbara Sproul, Primal Myths (San Francisco; Harper Row, 1979), 192 / https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jinasena
[15] Formless yet radiant.
[16] Buddha often ignored cosmological questions, considering them irrelevant to living a religious life. However, he used the prevailing concepts of his time to spread his core message: denying a creator, accepting the cyclical nature of the world, and declaring the caste system irrational. (Author)
[17] This religion flourished during the Achaemenid Empire founded by Cyrus the Great in the 6th century BCE. Later, from the 2nd to the 7th century CE, it spread across the vast territories of the Sassanian Empire. Following the Arab Muslim conquest of Persia and the fall of the Sassanian Empire, the number of followers decreased significantly. They either fled the country or converted to Islam. During that time, many sought refuge in Gujarat, India; they are known today as the Parsi community. They are Zoroastrians.
[19] These are referred to as Yazatas.
[21] In these religions, Abraham (Ibrahim) is recognized as the original patriarch/prophet.
[22] Jesus Christ, himself a Jew, intended to reform Judaism rather than preach a new religion. His disciples recognized him as the Son and messenger of God, detached themselves from Judaism, and introduced and preached Christianity.
[23] The Holy Bible (CSB Bible), Holman Bible Publishers, Nashville, 2017.
[24] Genesis: The Holy Bible (CSB Bible), Holman Bible Publishers, Nashville, 2017, pages 1-2.
[25] Pishon, Gihon, Tigris, and Euphrates.
[26] Three sons: Shem, Ham, and Japheth.
[27] The Holy Quran – Parts 1 & 2 (in Bengali), translated by Kazi Abdul Wadud, Bharati Library, Kolkata, 1967.
[28] Surah Ha-Meem.
[29] According to these verses, it took a total of eight days (2+4+2) to complete creation.
[30] The explanation of the structure and role of the sky and earth is also found in another verse. In the 22nd verse of the second Surah (Surah Al-Baqarah), it is said that He made the earth a floor and the sky a canopy, and arranged for rainfall from the sky to produce fruits for the sustenance of life.
[31] Called 'Hawwa' in Islamic scriptures.
[33] Comparative Religion, K.N. Tiwari, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt Ltd, Delhi, 2nd ed., 2009, pp. 215-235 (Sikhism).
[34] "Weapons do not cut it, fire does not burn it, water does not wet it, and wind does not wither it." (Gita, 2|23)
[35] "Just as a person discards worn-out clothes to put on new ones, the soul discards worn-out bodies to enter new ones." (Gita, 2|22)
[36] Included in the Samaveda, compiled between the 8th and 6th centuries BCE.
[37] Chandogya Upanishad – Part 2 (Chapter 5: Sections 3-10), translated in Bengali by Durgacharan Sankhyavedantatirtha, Dev Sahitya Kutir Pvt. Ltd. Kolkata, July, 2014.
[38] Though Shvetaketu is called Aruni-putra, his father is addressed as Gautama; Aruni is likely an ancestral name. (Author)
[39] For ease of description, we refer to these five processes as the "life-death cycle."
[40] An 8th-century philosopher, who wrote commentaries on the Upanishads.
[41] Chandogya Upanishad - 388.
[42] Chandogya Upanishad - 389.
[43] In Hinduism, the dead are cremated.
[44] Chandogya Upanishad – 408. Meaning: "The stealer of a Brahmin's gold, the drinker of liquor, the violator of the Guru's bed (adultery with Guru's wife), and the killer of a Brahmin—these four, and the fifth who associates with them, all fall from grace."
[45] Comparative Religion, K.N. Tiwari, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt Ltd, Delhi, 2nd ed., 2009.
