The French Revolution of 1789 did not just strike at religious belief; it ignited a localized explosion of public anger against religious institutions that were inextricably linked to the interests of the monarchy and feudalism. Revolutionary leaders closed churches, destroyed religious symbols, and abolished Christian holidays.
In place of Christianity, state-sponsored initiatives attempted to establish atheistic ideology like the Cult of Reason[1], or a year later, Maximilien Robespierre’s (1758–1794) deistic Cult of the Supreme Being. The revolutionary state confiscated lands of Catholic Church and redistributed them. Weakened economically, the Church's social influence dwindled. The climax occurred in 1798 when the forces of French General Louis-Alexandre Berthier (1753–1815) expelled the Pope from Rome and established a republic.
The French Revolution thus paved the way of emergence of a secular state. Napoleon Bonaparte (1769–1821) further strengthened this, even as he returned some rights to the Church via the Concordat of 1801; he kept them firmly under the state control. This wave spread across Europe and America, causing religion to retreat as scientific progress exposed the inaccuracies of scriptural claims. Consequently, Western history post-Renaissance is often defined as secular, with public support and funding for Christian institutions declining significantly during the 19th century.[2]
The Rise of Fundamentalism and Millennialism
In the early 20th century, Christian Fundamentalism emerged in the United States as a reaction to modernity. It asserted the truth of Christianity through “Five Fundamentals”:
1. The Infallibility of the Bible.
2. The Virgin Birth of Christ.
3. Substitutionary Atonement.
4. The Physical Resurrection of Christ.
5. The Reality of Miracles.
At the heart of this literalist belief lies the theory of millennialism.[3] Based on the Book of Revelation[4], this doctrine holds that Jesus Christ will return to establish a divine kingdom on Earth for 1,000 years, followed by the Last Judgment[5] to determine the eternal fate of souls. While similar concepts exist in Judaism and Islam, it holds unique place in minds of Christian fundamentalists. For them, life is a state of waiting for this imminent return, requiring a life of “penance”[6] following every letter of the Bible.
The Millerites and the Great Disappointment
As science battered traditional faith in the West, various fundamentalist branches of Protestantism organized to promote these doctrines, peaking in the 1920s. Millennialists were the primary driving force. Historically, this movement gained traction during natural or political disasters when people feared the end of the world.
In America, millennialism became popular in the first half of the 19th century through William Miller (1782–1849). In 1831, he began preaching that the world would end in 1843. When 1843 passed, some of his supporters calculated a precise date: October 23, 1844.
On that day, many believers donned “Ascension Robes” (white garments) and waited on hills, rooftops, and trees to be taken to heaven. When nothing happened, Miller admitted his mistake and withdrew from the movement.[7] However, a segment of his followers persisted.[8] They claimed that Christ’s millennial reign had actually begun on that day, albeit invisibly. Therefore, everyone had to follow the strict dictates of the Bible to ensure they held the keys to heaven at the moment of final judgment.[9] By the 20th century, this ideology gained renewed[10] momentum among fundamentalists.
The conflict between fundamentalists and the secular, science-minded society reached a boiling point in July 1925 during the Scopes Trial held in Dayton, Tennessee. This was a landmark legal case that came to symbolize the clash between science and religion in American society. At the time, the Butler Act was in effect in the state of Tennessee, making it legally punishable to teach Darwin's theory of evolution in schools and colleges.[11]
The case featured a high school teacher, John T. Scopes[12] (1900–1970), as the defendant, accused of violating the Butler Act. Under this law, the teaching of evolution was prohibited in all public schools in Tennessee. Scopes, a football coach and substitute biology teacher at Rhea County High School, voluntarily opposed the law and taught the theory to his students. The case captured the attention of the entire United States, becoming the first national media event in American history. Detailed accounts were reported in all major newspapers, and the courtroom arguments were broadcast live over the radio.
Two prominent lawyers, namely William Jennings Bryan (1860–1925) and Clarence Darrow (1857–1938), represented the opposing sides. Bryan was three-time presidential candidate and a staunch Christian fundamentalist. He led the prosecution for the state of Tennessee, whereas Darrow, a renowned lawyer and an agnostic, represented Scopes. Bryan argued that evolution undermined religious faith and morality. In contrast, Darrow defended the freedom of education and highlighted the flaws in literal interpretations of the Bible. The trial reached a dramatic climax when Darrow called Bryan to the stand as an expert on the Bible. Darrow exposed the inconsistencies in Bryan's literal interpretations and the irrationality of his religious positions, leaving him visibly uncomfortable. Though Scopes was ultimately found guilty and fined $100 (a verdict later overturned on a technicality), the public exposure of the trial's debates led to widespread criticism of Christian fundamentalism. Due to his inability to defend his views against Darrow's questioning, Bryan and the fundamentalists became objects of ridicule across almost all levels of society for their perceived ignorance and opposition to modernity.
The Rise of the Neo-Evangelicals
The exposure of the fundamentalists' lack of intellectual depth caused their movement's influence to decline. Their aggressive stance toward rational thinkers further alienated the public, and religious faith continued to retreat. Decades later, evolution was included in high school curricula even in conservative American states.
However, the fundamentalists were not to be daunted. They remained socio-economically and politically powerful. In the 1940s, a group of religious leaders distanced themselves from overtly anti-science fundamentalist labels and re-emerged as conservative Evangelicals or Neo-evangelicals. They formed the National Evangelical Association (NEA) in 1942. Since 1956, the theological magazine Christianity Today, founded by Billy Graham[13] (1918–2018), has been functioning as their primary mouthpiece.[14] By the late 20th century, this movement utilized electronic media, especially television channels, to spread its influence. They became allies of conservative politics and grew into a global force, reclaiming the ground lost by fundamentalism. They invested heavily in building their own educational institutions—Christian colleges and schools—and media platforms to promote their worldview outside state control. Instead of directly opposing scientific theories, they pivoted to focus on “religious morality”, campaigning against liberal issues like women's liberation, homosexuality, and abortion. This period of reorganization laid the foundation for a massive public resurgence in the 1970s and 1980s. Even in the 21st century, Christian fundamentalist education remains significantly similar to that of the 19th century, continuing to believe in the infallibility of the Bible and rejecting rational criticism or interpretations aligned with modernity.[15]
(Translated from a Bengali article written by the author with the help of Google Gemini.)
30/3/26
[1] An atheistic, and naturalistic religion centered on the worship of reason and freedom as an alternative to Christianity. This doctrine was established on November 10, 1793, by the Paris Commune led by Pierre Chaumette (1763-1794) at the 'Festival of Reason' held at Notre Dame. However, within a year, Robespierre rejected this doctrine and introduced the theistic doctrine of 'Cult of the Supreme Being'. In 1802, Napoleon Bonaparte banned both doctrines. - https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cult_of_Reason
[2] Ernest R. Sandeen, The Roots of Fundamentalism: British and American Millenarianism 1800–1930, 1970.
[6] Fundamentalism views life as a quest to atone for the original sin of Adam and Eve; the Crucifixion is interpreted through this lens. (Author)
[8] The movement led to Adventism. Supporters were later so embarrassed by the "Ascension Robe" stories that they dismissed them as rumors, even offering a $50 reward for proof. - https://m.egwwritings.org/en/book/1443.2
[9] This led to the establishment of the Advent Church.
[10] Smith, Michael, "Christian Fundamentalism: Militancy and the Scopes Trial" (2010).
[15] Christian fundamentalism American Protestant movement, by Ernest R. Sandeen and The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica
